
Class _L_A±:l 

Book— ^ :_: 

CQEXR3GHT DEPOSIT. 



LIPPINCOTT 
EDUCATIONAL SERIES 



EDITED BY 



MARTIN G. BRUMBAUGH, A.M., Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR OF PEDAGOGY, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, AND COMMISSIONER 
OF EDUCATION FOR PUERTO RICO 



VOLUME III 



LiPPiNCOTT Educational Series 



HISTORY 

OF 

EDUCATION 



BY 

E. L. KEMP, A.M. 

PROFESSOR OF PEDAGOGY, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, 
EAST STROUDSBURG, PENNSYLVANIA 




PHILADELPHIA 

J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 
1902 



TWF !. ;fJRARV OF 

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Two O0-1E8 Heoek-ed 

NOV. 30 mil 

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CLASS a, KXc !So. 

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Copyright, 1901 

BY 

J. B. LippiNcoTT Company 



ELECTROTYPED AND PRrNTED BY J. B. tIPPINCOTT COMPANY, PHILADELPHIA, U.S.A. 



o\- a^ii'^0 



AUTHOR'S PREFACE 

Education is the effort of society to impress its ideals 
upon the thought and activity of the young. It is, there- 
fore, both a result and a cause : a result, because every 
type of civilization produces its ovi^n peculiar type of 
education ; a cause, in that it tends to maintain and pro- 
mote the form of social life in which it originated. It 
conserves the mental achievements of the past, and pro- 
gresses with the expanding life of nations and the race. 

The general progress of civilization is from small and 
simple organizations of men among whom there is but 
little differentiation of thought and occupation, but little 
freedom of the individual, to large national unities which 
protect and foster the individual in the enjoyment of 
almost unlimited scope for the development of his per- 
sonal endowments. A clan is at one end of the line, a 
great republic at the other. The student will do well to 
keep this fact in mind, however irregular the progress of 
humanity has been, and carefully note the changing char- 
acter of progressive peoples and the changing relationship 
between social bodies and the individual. 

The intelligent study of the educational systems of 
nations and other social units must necessarily be based 
upon a fair knowledge of the other phases of their de- 
velopment. The student should familiarize himself with 
the principal physical and human factors that have 
contributed to the evolution of their peculiar genius 
and with the facts that reveal it, and should especially 



vi AUTHOR'S PREFACE 

endeavor to discover their causal relationships. Until he 
begins to recognize these, he is still but in the primary- 
stages of historical study. 

This volume is intended to be neither an outline of 
the philosophy of educational development nor a con- 
geries of educational facts however interesting, but such 
a presentation of the most important events in the his- 
tory of education as shall keep constantly before the 
student's mind the true character of its evolution, and, 
particularly, enable him to understand the genesis and 
nature of existing institutions, principles, and methods. 

There is given no account of education among primi- 
tive tribes, for that is not education in the accepted sense 
of the term. Among such tribes there is little more than 
traditional training in the manufacture and use of a few 
crude household utensils, a few simple implements for 
war and the chase, and informal instruction in super- 
stitious beliefs and practices that fill the lives of learners 
with fear and wonder. 

The Chinese and Persians have contributed nothing, 
and the Hindus but little, to the development of Western 
education, yet their educational systems are described as 
comprehensively as possible in so brief a work. The 
reason for this is that the systems are very interesting, 
and that their development was so simple that the un- 
derstanding of them is easy and serves as a helpful 
introduction to the study of the advanced and compli- 
cated systems of the more progressive peoples. 

To the teacher the study of the history of education 
brings three valuable results. It widens his professional 
horizon and makes him feel the dignity of his calling. 



AUTHOR'S PREFACE vii 

It gives him true pedagogic perspective and enables him 
to estimate accurately the value of courses of study and 
methods of teaching. It inspires him, for the great 
teachers with whom it makes him acquainted were sacri- 
ficial high priests who mediated to the world its higher 
life, and they themselves were the sacrifices. 



EDITOR'S PREFACE 

The history of education is a vital part of the race's 
record of its own advancement. It is a record of the 
prophetic provision of the race to achieve its ideals. It 
is the conscious attempt of one generation to anticipate 
the intellectual needs of the next and to provide for those 
needs. In a most significant sense it is a report of race 
maturity striving to strengthen and advance itself through 
its immature life. Thus, education is always prophetic. 
It seeks to give the race the conscious power to advance 
itself in all material and spiritual interests. The work of 
each generation in education must be studied not only 
in the light of the past, but more especially in the light 
of the future. What has been the effect of the work 
of education measured in terms of its application ? The 
answer will best interpret the dominant activities in any 
age. 

The great educational movements are racial and not 
individual. Too much emphasis has been placed upon 
the work of certain heroic teachers, and too little em- 
phasis upon the dominant educational spirit of the age, — 
the spirit which bred these leaders and made possible 
their great work. The history of education must be more 
than a biographic handbook. It is only in proportion to 
the race activity that progress has come. One must, there- 
fore, grasp more than isolated effort if he is to think of the 
problems of education. It is always wise to give the indi- 
vidual reformer and leader his true setting. Immature 



X EDITOR'S PREFACE 

students are prone to measure all teaching by the stand- 
ards they know. They do not comprehend the subtle 
undercurrents that combme to give force and favor to 
the work of the one or of the age. One scarcely knows 
the basis of educational theory until he is able to think 
the growth of education impersonally. After the race's 
record is traced, it is well to note the specific effort of 
the few great souls who caught with teleologic insight 
the best the racial life made possible ; and who, by their 
writings or by their practice, have made distinct con- 
tributions to the vital problems of education. 

It is vastly more important that a student should grasp 
the dominant influences in great national educational 
movements than that he should know in detail the work 
of some writer on educational theory. He should be 
able to lift his thought above the mere concrete activities 
of the day and see educational movements in the broad 
general aspects which have dominated the development 
of the race. In this connection there are some intensely 
interesting problems upon which he should concentrate 
himself and from which he should gather distinct and 
clearly defined guiding principles. He should see, for 
illustration, how vastly different were the national types 
of education in Greece and Rome. He should also from 
this distinction be able to understand why the great Greek 
spirit of education so powerfully influenced the thinking 
of the world in all subsequent development. In sharp 
contrast with this he should see to what extent the utili- 
tarian spirit narrowed and limited the educational forces 
of Rome. A most interesting study presents itself to 
the inquiring mind in a contemplation of the struggle 



EDITOR'S PREFACE xi 

between the decaying national schools and the rising 
Christian schools of the church. He should see clearly 
how the triumph of the Christian schools led to the de- 
nationalization of education and how for a thousand 
years a great religious organization in disregarding na- 
tional types and racial characteristics fought a heroic but 
unsuccessful battle against ignorance. Following this, 
a most interesting and important period, marking the 
reincorporation of the earlier humanities, becomes a 
fascinating and valuable part of the student's study. 
In this renaissance period education again becomes 
national in its types and differentiates itself into numer- 
ous special forms, and modern education in emphasizing 
one or the other of these forms becomes an exceedingly 
complex study. 

To cover in detail the whole field of educational his- 
tory is beyond the possibilities of the average student of 
the subject. It would be well after making a survey of 
the entire field, such as this book presents, if the student 
were to concentrate his study upon some one great edu- 
cational movement. He should make an exhaustive 
study along this chosen line and come to understand in 
its fulness one special problem, one special fact of the 
world-power in education. This will become to him the 
standard of interpretation and the type of later inquiry. 
It will prevent him from drawing conclusions from su- 
perficial study and make him conservative and cautious 
in the interpretation of other educational theories and 
movements, and in general it will give Mm that sane 
and healthy attitude so essential to leadership in educa- 
tional thought. 



xii EDITOR'S PREFACE 

It seems also necessary to refer to the great paucity of 
good literature upon the subject of education and to ex- 
press the hope that as this subject becomes increasingly 
prominent in the curricula of the various higher institu- 
tions of learning in the most enlightened countries that 
teachers will possess themselves not only of the present 
meagre literature, but that their earnestness for additional 
material will lead in the near future to the publication of 
important original pedagogical doctrines. Perhaps enough 
is now being said about educational reformers, but it is 
manifest that too little is placed before the minds of the 
teachers from the sources themselves. In harmony 
with the latest and best pedagogical insight relating to 
the teaching of all history it is hoped that in the near 
future source-books will be placed at the disposal of 
the students. 

To the younger student the distinction between an 
educational writer and a real teacher should be clearly 
drawn. One must avoid the fatal pitfall that all too 
readily entraps many young minds and leads them to 
think that all that has been written upon education rests 
upon enlightened and extended experience with actual 
flesh-and-blood children. Too many treatises on educa- 
tion discuss fanciful schemes of education as wrought 
upon dream children. The pedagogic child has been 
fully reported. The essential thing is to note clearly 
what has been done in the actual realm of education by 
a real teacher in close contact with ordinary children. 

This volume is an intelligent and concise presenta- 
tion of educational advance in harmony with the cen- 
tral functions here set forth. It will be found to be 



EDITOR'S PREFACE xiii 

conservative and thoughtful and fair in its treatment of 
the various dominant educational influences of the race. 
The author has made a thorough study from the original 
sources of the topics he discusses, and his work thus 
becomes an important introduction for the younger 
student to the rich and wide field of educational 
history. 

M. G. B. 
San Juan, July 25, 1901. 



CONTENTS 

PART I 

THE ORIENTAL NATIONS 

PAGE 

China .......... 17 

National characteristics — The examinations — The schools 
— Confucius — The language — Concluding remarks. 

II 
India ........... 26 

Historical notes — Present state of education — Determin- 
ing factors of ancient system — The schools — The teachers 
— Results of system. 

Ill 
Persia .......... 34 

Race characteristics — History — Religion — General educa- 
tion — Education of the priests — Criticism. 

IV 
Egypt .......... 39 

History — Genius of the people — Classes of society — Ele- 
mentary education — Higher education — The literature. 

V 
The Semitic Races ........ 45 

History — Distinguishing features of civilization — Domes- 
tic education — The priests — Schools of the prophets — 
The scribes and the rabbins — The synagogue — The Bible 
school and elementary education — Comments. 



XVi CONTENTS 

PART II 

THE CLASSICAL NATIONS 

VI 

PAGE 

The Greeks . 55 

Introduction — Environment — Characteristic achievements 
— Type of genius. 

Sparta 57 

History — Early life and discipline — Physical culture 
— Mental training — Military training — Female train- 
ing — Results. 

Athens ......... 62 

Social development. 

Elementary Education. 

Aim — The palaestra — The didaskaleion — Musi- 
cal training — Literary curriculum — Arithmetic. 

The Gymnasium. 

The training — The Ephebi. 

Higher Education. 

The early philosophers. 

Pythagoras. — The school and the teacher — The 

doctrine — End of the school. 
The Sophists. — Their popularity — Their work. 

The Great Philosophical Schools. 

Socrates. — The man — The method — The pur- 
pose — Relation of Socrates to philosophy. 

The Academy. — General philosophic theory — 
Theory of state and education — Criticism. 

The Peripatetic School. — The founder — His intel- 
lectual activity — General theory. 

The Stoics. — Zeno — The philosophy — Studies 
and aims. 

The Epicureans. — Conclusion. 



CONTENTS XVii 

^^" 
Rome ........... 84! 

National character — Early home life — Early education — 
Elementary education — Secondary education — Higher 
education — Educational theorists. 

Later Education. 

University of A lexandria. — Fou nd i n g — Th e 
work — Neo-Platonism — Conclusion. 



PART III 
EARLY AND MEDIEVAL CHRISTIAN EDUCATION 

VIII 

The Founder of Christianity ...... 97 

The man — His mission — Relation to men — Relation to 
children — Summary of principles — His pedagogy. 

IX 

Early Christian Education . . . . . . .106 

Early state of church — The congregations as schools — 
The catechetical schools — The cathedral schools. 

X 

Monastic Education (5*-12"' Century) 109 

Historical review. 

Mbnasticism. — Nature and origin — Early history — 
John Cassian — The Benedictine and Columban 
monks — The monastery. 
The Afonastic School. — Primary instruction — Sec- 
ondary instruction — Higher instruction — The 
pupils — Female education — Criticism of courses 
of study — True office of mediaeval monks. 
Episcopal Schools. 

Parochial Schools. — School discipline. 
h 



xviii CONTENTS 

^^ PAGE 

Later Development of Monastic Type of Education , . 122 

Charlemagne. — The man — Plans for the empire — Educa- 
tional efforts. 
Alfred the Or eat. 
Education in the East. 

The Schoolmen.— Their work — History — Abelard — Service 
rendered. 

XII 
New^ Educational Forces . . . . . . .130 

Mohammedan Learning. — Philosophy, literature, and law 

— Scientific activity — The schools. 
Chivalry. — Train ing — Educational value. 
The Cities and their Schools. — The chartered towns — 
Their government — The burgher schools. 

XIII 

Rise of the Universities . . . . . . .138 

Causes — Early character — Salerno — Bologna — Paris — 
Organization — Faculties — Privileges and discipline — 
Other early universities — Conclusion. 



PART IV 



PERIOD OF SUPREMACY OF PAGAN CLASSIC 
LITERATURE 

XIV 

The Renaissance . . . . . . . .149 

Fourteenth Century Society. — The monk — The passing of 

the knight — The citizen. 
Origin of Renaissance. — Nature — Petrarch — Boccaccio — 
The Greek teachers — The printing press — The li- 
braries — The spread of the New Learning and the 
universities. 



CONTENTS xix 

The New Learning in Teutonic Countries. p^^^. 

Brethren of the Common Life. — John Wessel — Agri- 
cola — Reuchlin. 
Erasmus. — Activity as a scholar — Exponent of 
humanistic ideals — The Greek Testament. 

XV 

The Reformation and Public Education . . . .162 
Origin of Reformation — Relation to state education and 
elementary schools — Causes — Zwingli. 

Martin Luther. — Early life — Translation of the Rible 
— Letter to German cities — His arguments — 
Pedagogical ideas. 

XVI 

The Classical Secondary Schools ..... 171 
Origin — In England — In Germany. 

Melanchthon. — Early life — Relation to university and 
secondary school — The Saxony school plan. 
^ John Sturm. — Status as an educator — The gymna- 
sium — Religion — Latin — Greek — Other studies 
— Correlation — Origin of elements in course. 

XVII 

Extension of Educational Activity . . . . .180 
Roger Ascham. — The man — His Latin method. 

XVIII 
The Jesuits ......... 184 

Loyola. — Early life — Preparation for work — Organization 
of Society. 

Growth of Schools — Ratio Studiorum — Secondary course 
— Superior instruction. 

The Lesson. — The prelection — The repetition — The dispu- 
tation. 

Academies — Other features of the work — Emulation — 
Religious exercises — The teachers — Advantages. 



XX CONTENTS 

XIX 

PAGE 

Innovators of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries . 193 
Causes of innovation. 

Montaigne. — Criticism of schools — Proposed re- 
forms. 

Bacon. 

Mulcaster. 

Batke. — His claims — Fundamental principles — The 
school — Methods of teaching — Criticism. 

Comenius. — Pathos of his life — Offices and labors — 
The Didactica Magna — Theory of elementary 
education — Educational periods and courses of 
study — Aims and principles — Realism — Theory 
of expression — The pansophic scheme — Text- 
books — Orbis Bictus. 

John Milton. 

John Locke. — Health rules — Study as play — Physical 
training — Working schools — Tutoring. 

Fenelon. — The man — Theory of female education — 
Methods. 



XX 

Progress of the Schools in the Seventeenth Century . 225 
In Holland — In America — In Scotland — In France. 
The Jansenists. — Port Royal methods. 
Brethren of the Christian Schools. — La Salle and his 

Order — The Conduct of Schools — Simultaneous 

teaching and normal schools. 
The Bietists. — Pietism — Francke — The institutions at 

Halle — The Burgher Schools — The Pedagogium 

— Results. 
Concluding remarks on Classic Period. 



CONTENTS xxi 

PART V 
THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY— A Period of Transition 

XXI 

PAGE 

The First Half of the Century ..... 247 

General features — Rollin — The real schools — Teachers' 
seminaries — The new humanism — Growth of revolu- 
tionary thought — Revolt in religious thought — Change 
in social ideas. 

XXII 

Jean Jacques Rousseau ....... 255 

Early life — Literary career — Emile — Sophie — Criticism of 
Emile — Merits. 

XXIII 

The Philanthropin and Other Developments . . . 265 
Its founder — Physical training — The languages — Religion 
— Later history — Growth of elementary education in 
Europe — The Sunday-school — The universities — Growth 
in America — National legislation. 



PART VI 

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY— Humane Education 

XXIV 

Character of Century and Early Changes . . . .277 
Causes of educational progress — Joseph Lancaster — An- 
drew Bell — School activity in Prussia and France. 

XXV 

The Great Educators ....... 282 

Pestalozzi. 

Personality — His love-letter — Industrial school at 
Neuhof — Evening Hours of a Hermit — Leonard and 
Gertrude — Stanz — Burgdorf — Yverdun — Review. 



xxii CONTENTS 

Froebel and the Kindergarten. page 

Formative influences — Finding his mission — His 
schools — The Kindergarten — Its basis — Its methods 
— Later history — His services. 

Herbart. 

Early pedagogical experience — The pedagogical semi- 
nary — Fundamental ideas — Herbartian schools. 

ROSMINI. 

XXVI 

Growth of Public Elementary Education .... 302 
In Germanic countries — In France — In Great Britain and 
Ireland — In other European countries. 

In the United States. — School funds — State organiza- 
tion — Horace Mann. 
Improvements. — In course of study — In methods — 
Training of teachers — Training courses — The 
Kindergarten. 

XXVII 

Secondary and Higher Education ..... 323 

German secondary schools — Other European secondary 
schools — European higher education. 

In the United States. — The secondary schools — 
Higher education — Technical education. 

XXVIII 

Other Characteristic Developments ..... 333 
Industrial education. 

Schools Jor the Unfortunate. — For the deaf and dumb 

— For the blind — For the feeble-minded. 
Higher Education of Women. — In America — In 

Europe. 
University extension — The Chautauqua movement — 
The child-study movement. 



CONTENTS xxiii 

XXIX „,^^ 

FAGE 

School Supervision ........ 343 

In England — In France — In Germany — In the United 
States. 

XXX 

Later Pedagogical Literary Activity ..... 349 
German — French — British — American. 



Bibliography ......... 355 

Index 361 



PART I 
THE ORIENTAL NATIONS 



CHINA 

In population and extent of territory the Chinese 
Empire is colossal. It is lai^er than the United States, 
and numbers more than four hundred million inhabi- 
tants. In age it is the most venerable of the nations of 
the earth. Its accepted history extends back about 
four thousand four hundred years. It was old when 
were in their youth nations that for centuries played 
a prominent role in the drama of human hfe and long 
ago passed out of existence. 

The most vital factor in Chinese religion is the wor- 
ship of ancestors. This is a family matter, and the 
family is the type of the nation. In China reverence 
for the past has the dignity of a religious de- National 

votion and the persistent energy of a super- character, 
stition. In the centuries of its history there have been 
great changes, but through them all the nation has pre- 
served an extraordinary fixedness of character. The 
main cause for these facts must undoubtedly be sought 
in lack of intercourse with progressive peoples. In the 
early times, when this was difficult, China was isolated 
by geographical location, and later by determination of 
purpose. 

For this country, many centuries ago, a great patriot, 
Confucius, formulated a system of laws and moral prin- 
ciples and a body of rites and ceremonies in harmony 

2 17 



18 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

with it. The system is static, recognizing but one form 
of social organization. It is based upon and enjoins 
respect for the past. Through the natural disposition 
of the people and the energy of powerful rulers it was 
adopted as final for the nation. The govern- 

Basisof ... , 

Government ment IS Organized in conformity with it, and 
andEducation. -^ -^ ^^^ j^^^-g ^f ^^^ education of Chinamen, 

the soul of their learning. 

This learning is diligently sought. It is the necessary 
requirement for appointment to government offices, and 
these are the most honorable as well as the most profit- 
able positions in the country. 

It is claimed that there were schools and colleges in 
China nearly four thousand years ago. The founding of 
schools, however, is generally left to private enterprise. 
The state supports and controls comparatively few, but 
it maintains a great system of examinations. 

At the head of the educational system is the Hanlin, 
or Imperial Academy. This was organized in the seventh 
Organization ccutury. Bcsidcs Controlling the examina- 
of the System, tious, some of its members act as counsellors 
to the emperor, some have charge of public records, 
and others superintend the composition of dynastic 
histories and imperial addresses. 

The empire is divided into nineteen provinces. These 
are subdivided into departments, and these again into 
districts corresponding somewhat to our counties. For 
the administration of educational affairs there is in every 
province a chancellor, or provincial examiner, in every 
department a sub-chancellor, and there are in each dis- 
trict two resident educational mandarins, or professors. 



CHINA 19 

Twice every three years the provincial examiner, 
aided by the local sub-chancellor, holds examinations 
for the first degree in the departmental city. So highly 
is the degree prized that possibly two thou- 

" -^ i ./ Examinations 

sand applicants compete for it, some of them for the First 
men sixty or seventy years of age. Degree. 

For the final effort the candidates are shut up a night 
and a day, each in a narrow cell, and prepare a poem 
and an essay or two on subjects assigned to them by 
the chancellor. 

Out of the whole number of competitors only about 
twenty win the degree. Budding Genius. This confers 
social distinction and admission to the next higher ex- 
amination. 

Preliminary to these departmental examinations there 
are others given in the districts by the educational 
mandarins. 

The second degree is that of Promoted Scholar. The 
examinations for this are held once every three years in 
the provincial capitals. They are conducted by two 
examiners sent out from Peking, generally members of 
the Hanlin. These examinations are very severe. They 
last through three sessions, and may continue . . 

° "' Examinations 

nine days. The candidates must show skill for the second 
in prose and poetic composition, and prove Degree, 

possession of a thorough knowledge of Chinese history, 
philosophy, literary criticism, agriculture, military affairs, 
and finance. 

There frequently are as many as eight thousand can- 
didates present at one of these examinations. About 
one in a hundred is allowed to pass successfully. The 



20 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

fortunate ones take higher social rank, and are entitled 
to compete for the third degree, Fit for Office. 

The examination for the third degree is held in Peking 

every three years. It is conducted by members of the 

Hanlin. It lasts thirteen days. The suc- 

Examination '' 

for the Third ccssful Competitors fill the offices of the 
^^^^^' empire. They are assigned to these after 

passing two more examinations in the presence of the 
emperor. The highest on the list in these receives 
the title of laureate, a highly prized honor. About a 
score of the best are admitted to membership in the 
Hanlin as probationers. These pursue further courses 
of study in schools maintained by the government. 
Some of these schools have courses of study like those 
in American and European colleges and polytechnic 
schools. Sometimes a few of the young men are sent 
to Europe or America to complete their education, so 
they may be fitted for diplomatic offices. 

This system of examinations is the oldest educational 
institution in the world. It is recorded of the Great Shun, 
about 2200 b.c, that he examined his officers every third 
year, and either promoted or dismissed them. As early 
as 1115 B.C. candidates for office had to show proficiency 
in music, archery, horsemanship, writing, arithmetic, and 
the rites and ceremonies of public and social life. 

To prepare for the examinations there are many 
schools. The government maintains a few of these. 
Character of Morc are fouudcd and endowed by wealthy 
the Schools, people. Most generally elementary schools 
are opened by " Budding Geniuses" who either have 
failed for the second deg-ree or need funds to continue 



CHINA 21 

their studies. These teach in private rooms, charging 
their pupils from twenty-five to fifty cents a montli. 

In the village schools the pupils attend from sunrise 
till five P.M., with the exception of an hour for dinner. 
The rooms are simply furnished. The teacher has an 
arm-chair and a table. Each pupil brings with him a 
writing-table and a chair. 

On entering school in the morning the pupils pros- 
trate themselves with great reverence before a picture 
of Confucius and with almost equal reverence before the 
teacher. Much reverence, indeed, is needed in that bare 
little room to enable the pupils to endure its dreary 
monotone of drudgery and the frequent applications of 
the rattan or bamboo necessary to keep up the energy 
of their efforts. 

There are three stages of study and three correspond- 
ing grades of schools. In schools of the first grade the 
pupil learns to read and write the charac- gchoois of the 
ters. He also learns a little elementary Mrst Grade. 
arithmetic. He commits to memory the three character 
cktssie, which contains more than four hundred charac- 
ters, representing over a thousand different words, the 
thousand character booh, the Four Books, and nearly all of 
the Five Classics. This is a mass of literature as exten- 
sive as the Bible. 

From three to five years are spent in this work. In 
all this time the teacher makes no effort to explain the 
literature which the pupils are required to commit to 
memory, in spite of the fact that the literary language 
differs from that spoken by the people. How well 
the first book would be adapted to boys six or seven 



22 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

years of age, even if it were written in the vernacular, 
may be judged from the following translation of the 
opening lines : 

Man's commencement of life is such that his nature is radically 

good. 
As to nature, men are mutually near each other ; 
Whilst in practice, they are mutually far apart. 
Suppose, however, that no education were given to a man. 
His nature would then be diverted. 

In schools of the second grade the Four Boohs and 
Five Classics, with supplementary works, mainly com- 
The Higher meutaries and historical works, are trans- 
schoois. lated and explained. Much attention is 

given also to prose and poetic composition. The writing 
is done in accordance with approved and prescribed 
forms, and is very mechanical. 

The work in the third grade of schools consists in 
the study of general literature and of training in com- 
position. This grading is not always carefully observed. 

The text-books used are chiefly the Five Classics and 
the i^orw Books, together with commentaries and sup- 
plementary historical works. The Five Classics, with 
TheTexf> °^® exccptiou, Were compiled by Confucius 
Books. out of the earlier Chinese literature. One 

historical work he claimed as his own. 

The first three of the Four Books were prepared by 
disciples of his to set forth his doctrines, and the fourth 
is the work of Mencius (372-289 b.c), who much ad- 
mired him. So these works all bear the impress of the 
sage's personality. 



CHINA 23 

Confucius was born in a time of great degeneracy and 
disorder. The country then had a feudal system. A 
succession of weak monarchs had so strengthened the 
nobles that they were almost independent confucius 
of imperial authority. ssi-ivs b.c. 

Confucius endeavored to improve the state of society 
by reviving interest in the ideas and customs of the past. 
He tried to do this in a practical way as an official in his 
own province. He at first met with some success, but 
was soon obliged to lay down his office and depart from 
the capital. With persistent devotion to the interests of 
his country he wandered from court to court, offering 
his services and instructing disciples. Rulers were 
unwilling to adopt his measures, and in his old age he 
returned disappointed to his native province to die. 

The sacred books set forth a comprehensive natural 
system of morals, elaborated with considerable fulness 
of detail. They recognize five human rela- 

' f 1 V,- i 1 Ethical system. 

tions, those oi sovereign and subject, parent 
and child, husband and wife, brother and brother, friend 
and friend. These require the exercise of five funda- 
mental virtues : benevolence, justice, wisdom, politeness, 
and good faith. 

The books abound in excellent precepts. The follow- 
ing are a few of the best : 

Do not to others what you would not have done to you. 

Pity the widow and the fatherless, and give succor to brute 
animals. 

When you see the right, do it ; when you know your fault, cor- 
rect it. 

Kindness must be repaid, but not injury. 



24 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

One relation the sacred literature passes by, — the rela- 
tion of man to his Maker. There is no distinct recog- 
nition of a living God, who is the source of law and its 
authority and unfailingly executes his judgments in the 
issues of life. 

The language of the " classical literature" is peculiarly 
difficult. It differs from the spoken language as much 
as if it were a foreign tongue. It is monosyl- 
' tabic and entirely lacks inflections, an ending 
for the possessive case only excepted. One word may 
fill the office of all the principal parts of speech. There 
is no alphabet. Each character represents an idea. 
These characters are either simple or compound. More 
than thirty thousand are required for a scholar's range 
of thought. 

There is interest and profit in the study of Chinese 
education because of its direct contrast with modern 
Western ideals and methods. In an exagger- 
ated way, too, it presents the defects com- 
mon to nearly all old systems, memorizing a body of 
literature as authoritative, and supporting a fixed social 
order. It exalts instruction and authority above dis- 
cipline and vigor of independent thought. 

Aside from the demands of office and the dignity con- 
ferred upon learning by the system, there is no interest 
in education. The Chinese have never learned to edu- 
cate a man for the man's sake, as a means of developing 
the latent resources of his being. As a consequence, 
women are not taught at all and not more than one man 
in twenty is able to read freely and intelligently. 

The system fails, too, in its moral results. The 



CHINA 25 

Chinese, generally, are sadly lacking in moral force and 
are notoriously dishonest. This is due to the fact that 
they lack a truly ethical religion and that they study 
their moral system mainly to win social distinction and 
political office. 

It has one good result in that it relieves the empire 
of much friction. It makes the obtaining of office pos- 
sible for all but the very poorest and secures respect for 
officials. These form a cultivated class who consider it 
their duty to promote culture, and they produce nine- 
tenths of all the vast amount of literature published in 
their country. 

HISTORICAL SUMMARY 



Examination of officials by the Great Shun 


2200 B.c 


Examination in music, archery, rites, etc. 


1115 B.C 


Confucius, born ..... 


651 B.c 


Mencius, bom 


372 B.C 


The Hanlin, organized . ... 


ipirca) 700 a.d 



II 

INDIA 

For us a peculiar interest attaches to India. This is 
due to a number of causes. Among these are its com- 
mercial importance, its claims as a Christian mission 
Historical field, and the kinship of an important part of 
Notes. its population to ourselves in blood and lan- 

guage. The high-caste Hindus exhibit many traces of 
their Aryan origin, and they have preserved the earliest 
known form of Aryan speech as a sacred heritage. 

The country is rich in resources. It is a coveted prize 
for which have contended a number of energetic and 
ambitious peoples. Beginning with Alexander the Great, 
Greek, Scythian, Mohammedan, Portuguese, and Hol- 
lander have in succession conq*uered, and, for a time, 
governed and preyed upon all or parts of it. All have 
left some traces of their presence in the country. British 
rule began in the eighteenth century. 

When the present masters came into possession, they 
found existing side by side many different forms and 
degrees of civilization, and every form and degree of the 
lack of it. A considerable portion of the population 
was, and still is, Mohammedan. A number of hill tribes 
maintained, apparently unchanged, the forms of life that 
had been theirs before the early Aryan conquerors 
swarmed into the country through the mountain gate- 
26 



INDIA 27 

ways of the Northwest about two thousand years before 
Christ. 

The sturdy civilization of the West, represented by the 
new rulers of the country, is gradually working great 
changes in the social life of the people. Among other 
things there is now a state system of education. To 
the system belong elementary and secondary present state 
schools, colleges, universities, normal and °^ Education. 
other technical schools. They are supported in whole 
or in part out of the state treasury. There are also 
many Mohammedan and Parsee schools, and Christian 
schools connected with the mission work of various de- 
nominations. The mission schools have accomplished a 
great work, and continue to be influential. 

The largest part of the life in India is still Hindu as 
distinguished from Mohammedan or Christian, or that of 
the primitive tribes. The distinctive Hindu life is rooted 
deep in the old Aryan migrations. It is interesting to 
trace its development under the peculiar conditions of 
climate and race admixture. Out of it grew a system 
of education that is now very old. It is this system 
which the chapter describes. Though it is apparently 
doomed to pass away together with the caste system in 
which it is incorporated, it is still possible to talk of both 
of them in the present tense. 

One of the everywhere present and all-pervasive facts 
of Hindu life is caste. Castes are classes of society 
rendered permanent by law and custom. 
Those of India are directly traceable to race 
pride and the struggle for race preservation. At the 
time of the Aryan invasion the dark-skinned and inert 



28 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

natives far outnumbered their more intelligent and ener- 
getic vanquishers. At first there seems to have been 
considerable intermarriage ; but, in the course of time, 
the population divided into four principal castes, — the 
Brahmans, the warriors and rulers, the farmers and 
traders, and the Sudras, or laborers. The Brahmans 
furnish the professional people, priests, lawyers, and 
teachers. They are of pure Aryan blood. The Sudras 
are the descendants of the original inhabitants, and the 
intervening castes are of mixed blood. A large body of 
people, known as Pariahs, stand outside of and below 
the castes. There are many subdivisions of the castes, 
and some of the older forms have practically disap- 
peared. 

Caste is hereditary. It determines the employment 
of a person and the nature and extent of his education. 
A man may sink into a lower caste, but he cannot rise 
to a higher. Sudras are excluded from all education. 
In the old order of things it was even unlawful to read or 
recite a passage from the sacred books in their hearing. 

Women are regarded as essentially inferior to men, 
and are also excluded from instruction. 

In China education is a thing separate from the re- 
ligion of the people, unless, indeed, Confucianism may be 
regarded a religion. This is not the case 
with the Hindus. Their religious doctrines 
and practices embrace the whole social system. The 
main body of the literature taught is considered sacred, 
and none of it is free from religious conceptions. Their 
religion involves a subtle system of philosophy, and 
much effort is made to cultivate this. In the elementary 



INDIA 29 

schools there are religious exercises, hymns and prayers' 
three times a day. 

The religion of the early Vedic period was a pure 
nature worship. The Indian Aryan of that period 
worshipped the shining sky and other natural phenom- 
ena as living beings. This was followed by varying 
forms of polytheism. Gradually the idea grew in the 
Hindu mind that all forms of separate existence, in- 
cluding even the gods, unfolded themselves out of primal 
existence and are destined eventually to return to it 
again. This form of pantheism at last became the al- 
most universal belief. God, or Brahma, is thought of as 
impersonal essence, unconscious absolute being, from 
which all things emanate. All individual, separate exist- 
ence is pain and sorrow. So the supreme desire of the 
Hindu mind is to escape the burdens and ills of life 
through loss of individuality and absorption in Brahma. 
Penance, charity, prayers, and study are supposed to 
further the desire. 

The sacred literature is in the Sanskrit language. It 
has proved of inestimable value to scholars in their 
efforts to solve the problems of Aryan kin- Language and 
ships, migrations, and development. Long Literature, 
before the time of Christ it ceased to be the every-day 
spoken language of the masses, but it has been preserved 
as the religious language of the Brahmans. Its litera- 
ture is remarkably extensive. The early sacred writings 
are in four collections, to each of which and to all col- 
lectively the term Veda, lore, is applied. They were 
composed, probably, between 1500 and 1000 b.c. They 
are supplemented by numerous works containing com- 



30 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

ments, explanations of religious ceremonies, and philo- 
sophical discussions. The earliest Veda, the Big-, or 
hymn, Veda, has one thousand and seventeen hymns. 
The greatest of the Sanskrit epic poems, the llahabha- 
rata, consists of one hundred thousand couplets, nearly 
eight times as many lines as the great Greek epics, the 
Iliad and Odyssey, together have. 

Elementary schools are generally conducted in the open 
air under a tree ; in bad weather, under a shed. As in 
China, lesirning is almost exclusively by rote. The pupils 
Elementary ^^^^^ team the letters of the alphabet and 
Schools. their names. They sing these over until they 

know them well. Then they spell words and syllables 
until they can pronounce words with a fair degree of 
readiness, after which they read lessons from their sacred 
books. The first writing is done in the sand with a 
stick. After a time the pupils are permitted to write on 
palm leaves with an iron stylus, and at last with ink on 
strips of plane-tree leaves fastened together with strings. 
There is also teaching of arithmetic. The study of arith- 
metic consists largely in committing to memory numer- 
ous tables of operations. In addition to this course of 
reading, writing, and arithmetic, there is careful instruc- 
tion in the duties and ceremonies of the caste to which 
the pupils belong, and in the tenets of their religion. 

The discipline is not very severe. In extreme cases 
only is the rod applied. Sometimes cold water is poured 
down the culprit's back. Frequently older pupils assist 
in teaching the younger ones. This suggested the moni- 
torial system to a famous English teacher who intro- 
duced it into England. 



INDIA 31 

For the higher learning there were already in very- 
early times Brahmanic settlements called Parishads. 
The Parishad was a sort of collegiate insti- Higher 

tute. There were also private schools, and schools. 

sometimes a young man would make his home with a 
learned Brahman to study under him. 

The course is extensive and thorough, and requires 
years of study. Some authorities say twelve or more. 
It embraces sacred and heroic literature, poetry, rhetoric, 
grammar, law, medicine, theology, philosophy, mathe- 
matics, and astronomy. In earliest times the instruc- 
tion was all oral, and the vast body of material had to 
be carried in the memory of teacher and pupil. It is a 
striking comment on Hindu method that even late text- 
books were so written as to be easily committed to 
memory. Some early ones were written in couplets. 

The only authorized teachers in elementary or higher 
schools are the Brahmans. By hereditary right advanced 
learning is reserved for them. Though the 

° .11 The Teachers. 

next two castes are not absolutely prohibited 
by law from taking the higher course of learning, even 
members of the warrior caste seldom avail themselves 
of the privilege. 

To the teachers is accorded religious respect. They 
are not salaried. They receive gifts from their patrons, 
which they collect at regular intervals in vessels strapped 
to the waist. Sometimes they receive property, gifts 
from wealthy admirers. 

The scholarly achievements of the Hindus in their 
enervating climate attest the philosophic character, the 
keenness, and native energy of the Hindu mind. They 



32 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

seem to have anticipated by nearly two hundred years 
some of the best features of Aristotle's logic. More than 
four centuries before Christ they had a com- 
prehensive grammar of their language. Quite 
early they computed eclipses and places of planets by 
means of tables. In the third or fourth century of the 
Christian era they had excellent treatises on rhetoric. 
In the fifth century a.d, they had an algebra superior 
to that of the Greeks. Whether they received help from 
the Greek algebra is not known. They were able to 
solve equations having two unknown quantities, and 
had methods for the resolution of indeterminate prob- 
lems of the first and second degree. They applied alge- 
bra to astronomical investigations. The Arabic system 
of notation, which has been such an inestimable boon 
to the Western nations, appears in their literature of the 
fifth century as an old thing. In fact, the Arabs got it, 
as well as much of the algebra they taught to the West, 
from our Aryan kinfolk in India. 

The results of the Hindu social system, religious belief, 
and specific education are easily summed up and not 
hard to understand. The Brahman is well informed in 
Results of the ^^^ traditional knowledge of his caste, fairly 
System. well disciplined in mind, proud, and self- 

satisfied. The majority of the people are illiterate and 
deemed unworthy of education. Even with the govern- 
ment and Christian church schools added, probably not 
more than three per cent, of the people attend school. 

There is no recognition of a man as a man. He is 
respected or despised as a part of some stratum of soci- 
ety. He is almost venerated as belonging to the exalted 



INDIA 



33 



and ornamental frieze of the social structure, overlooked 
or leaned against as a stone in the retaining wall, or 
trodden underfoot as a part of the clay on which it 
rests. 

As in China, there is no recognition of a man's in- 
herent right to be educated for the best of which he is 
capable. The primary educational law is that each per- 
son be taught his place and for his place. 

The hope of the lower-caste Hindu is that at the end 
of life his soul may reappear in a personality of higher 
caste, until, after a series of transmigrations, it attains 
Nirvana. His dread is that it may reappear in some 
still lower form of existence and be still further removed 
from final rest. 

The people generally become patient, docile, peace- 
able, resigned, and polite. They develop almost none 
of that ambition for high personal achievement which 
makes men energetic in character and effective in life. 
They learn almost nothing of that self-reliance and sense 
of personal responsibility which are necessary to the 
performance of duty in the highest sense of the word. 



HISTORICAL SUMMARY 

Aryan Migration . 
Vedic Literature . 
Buddhism .... 
Greek Invasion 
Mohammedan Invasion 
Beginning of British Empire 
System of Government Schools 



(eirca) 2000 B.C. 

1500-1000 B.C. 

600 B.C.-800 A.D. 

327 B.C. 

664 A.D. 

1765 A.D. 

1854 A.D. 



8 



Ill 

PERSIA 

Among the Aryans that settled in Media and Persia 
there grew up a civilization very different from that in 
India. The Persians did not, like the Hindus, become 
g^jjg scholars, metaphysicians, and religious re- 

characteristics. cluscs. They Were a sturdy and ambitious 
people, and cultivated the active virtues of life. They 
became farmers, warriors, and rulers. 

The land of their choice was designed for the rearing 
of such men. The southern portions are oppressively 
hot, but most of the country is high table-land traversed 
by numerous valleys and mountains. Some of the latter 
rise to great altitudes. In northern Media even the 
lowest valleys are from four to five thousand feet above 
the level of the sea. There the snow in winter fre- 
quently covers the ground to the depth of several feet. 
Nowhere is there to be found the luxurious vegetation 
of India. Large portions of the country are arid, and 
the cultivation of even the fertile portions generally re- 
quires considerable labor. 

Richer lands than their own and just beyond its gate- 
ways invited the Persians to warlike enterprise. They 
conquered a vast extent of territory and 
founded the greatest empire the world had 
yet known. In 558 b.c. Cyrus the Great incorporated 
Media with Persia by subjugating it. By the time of his 
34 



PERSIA 35 

death, 529 b.c, he had subjected to Persian domination 
all the country westward to the Mediterranean, including 
all of Asia Minor. His immediate successor added 
Egypt ; and Darius, the valley of the Indus on the east, 
and Thrace in Europe on the west. Egypt bowed to 
Persian power a hundred years ; Hindu, Babylonian, 
Arabian, Hebrew, Phoenician, Lydian, and Asiatic Greek 
a hundred more. At last the empire went to pieces 
under the terrilic blows of Alexander the Great. 

The religious conceptions that influenced the Persians 
of the higher classes had a direct bearing upon their 
education, and are otherwise worthy of special study. 
They had a higher ethical value than those of any other 
ancient people, the Jews only excepted. 
They were a peculiar outgrowth of the early 
Aryan nature worship, a kind of spiritualization of the 
old notions concerning the conflict of light and dark- 
ness. 

The religion is known as Zoroastrianism, because of 
its Zoroaster founder, an exalted religious teacher who 
lived probably a thousand years before Christ. It taught 
one Supreme God, Ahura-Mazda, or Ormazd, Lord All- 
knowing, as the creator and sustainer. Opposed to him 
there was an evil one, Ahriman. Subordinate to Ormazd 
were many good spirits and angels ; and to Ahriman, 
many devas, or evil spirits. Ormazd was the head 
of the kingdom of light. To him was attributed the ori- 
gin of all useful plants and animals, the source of all 
good fortune. Ahriman was the head of the kingdom 
of darkness. To him were attributed all noxious weeds, 
hurtful animals, diseases, and misfortunes. There was 



36 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

constant conflict between them, but the belief was that 
Ormazd would finally prevail, a notable optimism. 

The Persians held it to be the duty of men to engage 
in the conflict on the side of Ormazd, aiding him by 
cultivating the soil, destroying wild animals, caring for 
herds, educating children, subjugating evil passions. To 
the good was promised a safe passage at the end of life 
over the bridge spanning the dark river into an eternity 
of happiness. The evil, it was believed, would fall off 
in the middle and be swept away into darkness. 

Whatever systematic education there was, was un- 
dertaken by the state. It was confined to the sons of 
the nobles. After six or seven years spent under 
the mother's care, they were placed in training at the 
king's court or the courts of the lesser nobles. Their 
preceptors were state officials distinguished for their 
dignity of character and their services to the state, and 
priests. 

There was no effort made to teach the boys to read 
and write. Their training was mainly physical and 
General moral. They were exercised in running, 

Education. slinging stones, shooting with the bow, and 
throwing the javelin. When seven years of age they 
were taught to ride. Their horseback training was of 
the best. They leaped on and off a fast running horse. 
They practised with bow and javelin on horseback until 
they could use both with accuracy while the animal was 
at full speed. To prepare them for military expeditions, 
they were taken on hunting excursions, sometimes to 
considerable distances. On these excursions they were 
subjected to long marches, extremes of heat and cold, 



PERSIA 37 

and scanty provisions. This training rendered the boys 
vigorous and active. 

Great pains were taken to cultivate in them the virtues 
of courage, truthfulness, gratitude, justice, and self-con- 
trol, the virtues of a manly spirit. Men v^^ho had won 
distinction in the service of the state through the exer- 
cise of these virtues were rewarded in the presence of 
the boys. In their presence, too, were visited upon 
offenders the degradations and punishments due to a 
lack of these qualities. 

The priests instructed the boys orally in the tenets 
of their religion. 

At fifteen a boy was supposed to enter the period of 
youth. He was then enrolled in the army, though his 
training Avas continued until he was twenty. He was 
subject to military service till fifty. 

Intellectual education was left to the Magi, the heredi- 
tary priests of the country. It seems to Education of 
have included mainly a knowledge of their the Priests. 
religious writings, some phases of philosophy, and some 
astronomy. Their sacred literature is known as the 
Zend-Avesta. 

It is natural to look for noble results from such train- 
ing as the Persians received. It is possible, too, to trace 
such results in the records of that ancient life, but they 
where not sufficient to give permanence to 
the power and vigor of the race. The cul- 
ture was too narrow. There was no effort to cultivate 
the various mechanical arts. The Persians depended 
on the conquered nations to supply the products of 
these. There was also, as already noted, a general 



38 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

absence of the broadening and refining power of literary 
study. 

Another serious oversight was the failure to instruct 
the main body of the people. This same oversight 
manifested itself in an exaggerated form in the manage- 
ment of the empire generally. The conquered people 
were always treated as tributary states. They were 
never taught to consider themselves parts of Persian 
nationality. Even in war they were organized for battle 
by nations. 

There was, however, a weakness in the empire which 
no education could have overcome. The country lacked 
geographical unity and compactness. This source of 
weakness was all the more dangerous because of the 
effect it had on the rulers of the provinces. No matter 
how carefully these had been trained in truthfulness, 
justice, and gratitude, the size and remoteness of their 
provinces tended to foster dishonesty, intrigue, and re- 
bellion. When to these unfavorable circumstances is 
added the fact that the conquest of wealth and power 
generates pride and luxury, it is not surprising to read 
that the great kingdom went to pieces suddenly, inglori- 
ously, almost ridiculously. 

HISTORICAL SUMMARY 

Zoroaster ...... {probably) 1000 b.c. 

Defeat of Medes by Cyrus 558 B.C. 

Capture of Babylon by Cyrus ..... 538 b.c. 

Battle of Arbela and End of Empire ... 331 b.c. 



IV 
EGYPT 

Geography is not history, yet he is but a superficial 
historian who fails to recognize the vital relationship of 
geographical features to human distribution, activity, and 
character. The thought was crude that led the Egyptians 
to worship the Nile and turn the main entrances of their 
massive temples towards the river, but it was by no 
means ridiculous or contemptible. The Nile made Egypt, 
and made the Egyptians, too, one of the oldest of all the 
nations whose records survive. Younger nations that 
contributed much to the world's expanding life received 
many of their first lessons in civilization by the banks of 
the Nile. From there the Phoenicians brought many of 
the treasures of culture which they so generously dis- 
tributed, and the stamp of Egyptian genius was evident 
upon important religious beliefs of the Greeks and upon 
much of their learning and art. 

Egyptian history traverses a long span of years. The 
fourth dynasty commenced with the rule of Mena, 4235 
B.C., according to some authorities. Under this dynasty 
there was a developed civilization with dis- 

• L rni • • History. 

tinctly marked classes of society. The ongi- 
nality and skill displayed in the art works of the period 
indicate a high degree of intelligence and taste. The 
last native ruler lost his throne 340 b.c. Great works 
mark glorious periods between. It would appear that 

39 



40 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

there was considerable educational activity throughout 
this long series of years, and it did not altogether cease 
when the last king ended his reign. 

The genius of the people was mainly practical. They 
developed remarkable skill in the administration of pub- 
Genius of the ^^^ ^^^ private afifairs. They were among the 
People. most dexterous weavers of antiquity. Prob- 

ably four thousand years before Christ they cut excellent 
statues out of stone that is so hard as to test the tem- 
per of the best modern tools. They manufactured all 
sorts of glass articles, coloring them richly. They made 
artificial gems so like the natural stones as to deceive an 
expert, and jewelry of most elegant design. They were 
also either very intelligent or very patient engineers. 
Upon lofty pedestals they placed monolithic shafts 
seventy and more feet in height. In their temples they 
erected gigantic columns ten feet in diameter and rested 
upon them enormous stone slabs, sometimes forty feet 
in length, to form the roofs of the structures. 

In two respects did the Egyptian mind transcend its 
practical tendencies. These were the wondering awe 
with which it contemplated the mysteries of life, and the 
solemn prominence it gave to the thought of death. 
The former found expression in temples so vast and 
majestic in proportion as to still rank among the world's 
wonders, and the latter in the pyramids, the most 
stupendous funeral monuments ever erected by man. 

In ancient Egyptian society there were two classes 

clearly distinguished from the rest of the 

population, the soldiers and the priests. They 

were not strictly castes, as there were no laws regulating 



EGYPT 41 

their marriages, and they were only partly hereditary ; 
but they enjoyed very special privileges. The priests 
were distinctively the cultured class, and had almost 
exclusive control of the higher education. 

There was, apparently, no state provision for the edu- 
cation of the masses. There were, however, a sufficient 
number of private teachers and private ele- Elementary 
mentary schools in the different communities Education. 
to teach rudimentary reading, writing, and arithmetic to 
the children of such artisans and tradespeople as might 
be ambitious to advance them socially or to prepare 
them well for their future occupations. 

The office of scribe most generally tempted the ambi- 
tion of people belonging to the middle class. Scribes 
were in great demand for the copying of sacred manu- 
scripts and the writing of official documents and records. 
It is likely, too, that the business transactions of the 
larger merchants required much writing. 

To become scribes, boys after leaving the elementary 
school placed themselves in charge of scribes in some 
office. The first part of their course of training con- 
sisted in copying and committing to memory legal 
formulas, letters, and accounts. The matter to be 
copied was traced on wood or pieces of stone, and 
the pupil miitated it with a stylus on wooden tablets 
covered with stucco. He copied and recopied, and the 
master indicated the corrections on the margin. Later, 
the pupil wrote on papyrus. There were also exercises 
taken from books on morals, religious works, and tales. 
Many tablets with such exercises and corrections have 
been found in the rubbish piles of Egypt. At a later 



42 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

period in the course the pupil was put to composing 
formulas and letters. The higher training of the scribe 
was received at a temple school. There he was taught 
arithmetic, administration, law, and the three kinds of 
writing, demotic, hieratic, and hieroglyphic. It seems to 
have been possible for a scribe to advance to the priest- 
hood. 

The colleges for the higher professional learning were 
connected with the temples. This learning was confined 
Higher mainly to members of the priest class. There 

Education. ^as Special training for the architects of the 
sacred edifices, and for the engineers and physicians. 

The medical knowledge of the Egyptians was ex- 
tremely crude. Whatever skill physicians had in the 
treatment of diseases was strangely mixed with magic 
and exorcisms. There were, however, specialists for 
different diseases, and great importance was attached to 
the profession because the physicians embalmed the dead. 

The passion for building and the annual overflow of 
the Nile developed remarkable engineering skill. Sur- 
veyors were in demand to determme boundary-lines 
obliterated by the inundations. So the two facts made 
the Egyptians the earliest notable geometers and arithme- 
ticians. Twelve theorems have been found on a single 
papyrus. In these branches of knowledge they taught 
the Greeks much, but they never themselves succeeded 
in giving scientific form to their mathematical knowledge. 
They worked out each theorem and each arithmetical 
process separately. 

The architects and engineers must also have had con- 
siderable practical knowledge of mechanics. 



EGYPT 43 

The education of the priests embraced a thorough 
knowledge of their religion, of ritual and ceremonies, of 
morals, law, mathematics, astronomy, astrology, rhetoric, 
and the different forms of writing. Among the ancients 
they had great reputation for learning. They devised a 
calendar which w^as the basis of that adopted by Julius 
Cassar. The study of astronomy, like that of mathe- 
matics, received impetus from the overflow of the river, 
as it was desirable to know the time for the recurrence 
of the phenomenon. 

It is probable that some of their religious conceptions 
were of a high order, but the highest of them, as well 
as other portions of their learning, were treated as mys- 
teries and reserved for the priests of superior rank. 

The principal colleges of the priests were located at 
Memphis, Thebes, and Heliopolis, 

The literature created and studied by the cultured 
class was extensive. Besides technical treatises, it con- 
sisted of letters, books of travel, novels, 

. The Literature. 

poems, and moral and religious works. The 
best known of their religious works is the Booh of the 
Dead, containing texts, prayers, and incantations to 
help the soul in its journey through the underworld to 
the court of Osiris. Some of the poems and love-stories 
are fairly good, but the literary merit of most of their 
works is but moderate. 

The best features in the culture of the upper classes 
did not descend to the masses of the people. Aside 
from the feeling of awe and reverence inspired by the 
great temples and the overflow of the Nile, the reli- 
gious education of the masses was not very elevating. 



44 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Many of their religious ideas appear to have been de- 
rived from a primitive form of animal w^orship. For the 
Concluding priests, the sacred animals represented attri- 
Remarks. butes of the deities ; but for the great body 
of the people, they probably always were gods. Even 
modern Egyptians are grossly superstitious. 

In contemplating the surviving monuments of the 
achievements of this very ancient people, it is easy to 
exaggerate some things, to belittle others, but there 
always results a lasting impression of a solemn and 
wonderful grandeur. The shadows of the pyramids and 
of the pillars of Kamak rest upon the student. 



THE SEMITIC NATIONS 

One important chapter in the history of education has 
not yet been written. A very interesting one it no doubt 
would be. It is the history of the old Semitic kingdoms 
of Babylon and Assyria. As yet we know it The cider 
only conjecturally from its results. Whether Semites. 

the teachers were priests or laymen, they must have 
been highly respected. Assyria had a "god of learn- 
ing." 

In both kingdoms were large libraries. The literature 
was written on clay tablets, afterwards burned. Some 
of these libraries were catalogued and open to the read- 
ing public. That of Erech was so large and famous that 
Erech was known as the "City of Books." Asshur- 
bani-pal's library at Nineveh, it is estimated, contained 
ten thousand books. Large portions of these old libra- 
ries have been recovered from the ruins and deciphered. 
One work is a treatise on astronomy dating back to 3800 
B.C. There are lexicons and grammars in great number, 
and treatises on geography, plants, animals, and arith- 
metic. There are also many religious writings, poems, 
myths, fables, and proverbs. 

Besides the literature, there have been found many 
reports of officers, treaties, contracts, deeds, wills, and 
mortgages, all bearing testimony to the fact that the 
schoolmaster was abroad in the land. 

45 



46 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

More directly interesting than these older Semitic 
peoples are the Hebrews. The development of He- 
brew nationality and the maintenance of Hebrew racial 
characteristics and eminence are the mira- 
cles of history. The nation was cradled in 
Egypt and received its tutelage in Egyptian bondage, yet 
one of the most notable facts of history is the marked 
contrast between Hebrew and Egyptian religion and 
social organization. The race has passed through many 
pathetic and apparently overwhelming vicissitudes, enjoy- 
ing comparatively brief periods of independent national 
life ; and yet it seems to be as distinct and vigorous as 
ever, and furnishes powerful leaders of modern thought 
and action. The Hebrew religion was the one definitely 
monotheistic and strictly ethical religion of antiquity, 
and through Christianity it has given inspiration and 
character to nearly all that is noblest and purest in the 
highest types of modern civilization. 

The history of the people betw^een the exodus from 
Egypt and the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus and 
the consequent dispersion of the race naturally divides 
itself into three main periods. The first extends to the 
coronation of Saul, 1095 b.c. ; the second, to 
the beginning of the Babylonish captivity, 586 
B.C. ; and the third, to the time of the siege, 70 a.d. 
This division is very convenient in the study of Hebrew 
education, because its different phases coincide closely 
with these periods. 

The great central fact in Hebrew life, history, and liter- 
ature is the belief that God is the creator and ruler of 
the universe, and the loving preserver of his people. 



THE SEMITIC NATIONS 47 

The Hebrew learned in his religion to regard law as the 
expression of the will of God, This gave him two funda- 
mental ideas which even a cultured Greek or 

Distinctive 

Roman could scarcely, if at all, comprehend, Features of the 
the ideas of righteousness and sin. These civilization. 
ingrained into his life a sense of individual responsibility 
to a living God whose "judgments are sure and righteous 
altogether." 

The religion that taught the Hebrew so to exalt God, 
in the process exalted him, placing a value and dignity 
upon the individual such as no other Oriental people 
ever knew. "And God said," the old account of the 
creation reads, " Let us make man in our image, after 
our likeness." It also glorified the family, giving a new 
sanctity to fatherhood and motherhood ; and the degra- 
dation that was the lot of woman in Persia, India, and 
China was not known in Israel. 

With the Hebrew, too, patriotism and religion were 
inseparable. He was taught to recognize the hand of God 
in all the events of history. All the bright pages in the 
history of his people were appeals at once to his patriotic 
enthusiasm and to his religious zeal. 

In the period succeeding the exodus the Israelites 
maintained a sort of tribal confederacy. The organization 
was free and rather loose. The "judges" ruled Domestic 
by consent of the people. In this time educa- Education. 
tion of the body of the people was made the concern of 
the family. Fathers and mothers, fathers in particular, 
were made the teachers of the children by commandment. 

"Hear, Israel: The Lord our God is one Lord:" 
was the preamble to the law. " And thou shalt love," 



48 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

the law ran, "the Lord thy God with all thine heart, 
and with all thy soul, and with all thy might. And 
these words, which I command thee this day, shall be in 
thine heart : and thou shalt teach them diligently unto 
thy children, and shalt talk of them when thou sittest in 
thine house, and when thou walkest by the way, and 
when thou liest down, and when thou risest up. And 
thou shalt write them upon the posts of thy house, and 
on thy gates." (Deut. vi. 4-9.) It is similarly stated in 
the eleventh chapter. 

A study of both chapters shows that the love of God 
was to be based on a knowledge of the great events in 
Hebrew history. These were to be studied as revela- 
tions of His power and His love for the nation. The 
"these words" of the commandment were particularly 
the ceremonial and moral laws which were to govern 
the whole life of the Israelite. 

How generally the commandment was obeyed in that 
early time is not known, nor is it known when writing 
became general. Lapses into idolatry give evidence of 
occasional neglect of the law, but the time never was 
when its observance somewhere did not preserve the 
nobler life of Israel. No matter what other educational 
agencies were afterwards introduced, the law requiring 
domestic instruction was still considered binding. 

During this period, what may be termed the higher 
education was confined mainly to the priests. -.As long, 
as they continued in charge of the national 
worship they were, generally speaking, care- 
fully educated in history and the law. This included a 
knowledge of the civil law and administration. All was 



THE SEMITIC NATIONS 49 

included in religion. It is likely, too, that they were 
instructed somewhat in the rudiments of astronomy and 
mathematics because of the movable feasts. 

There came a time when the highest intellectual and 
spiritual life of the people was represented by the proph- 
ets. The period may be regarded as commencing with 
Samuel and extending to the time of the Babylonish 
captivity. The prophets sometimes were priests, but 
generally laymen. They frequently lived schools of the 
in communities and established schools. In Prophets. 
these schools were studied the law, national history, 
music, and poetry. The great prophets created for the 
people ,the noblest of their literary monuments. They 
were preachers of righteousness, and endeavored to 
broaden and deepen the popular conceptions of God. 
Some of them, like Elijah, made heroic struggle against 
the encroachments of foreign idolatry and vices upon 
the national virtues and religion. They not only pre- 
dicted the coming of the "Great Teacher," Jesus of 
Nazareth, but they also anticipated some of his pro- 
foundest and sweetest declarations. 

During the Babylonish captivity there arose a new 
class of teachers for Israel. These were the stribes. 
Originally they were copyists of the Scrip- 
tures. Occasionally they were priests as and the 

well. Upon the return from captivity they Rabbins, 
were organized, by Ezra, as interpreters of the law. 
This was one of the results of the great religious revival 
wrought by the captivity. Gradually all authority in 
religious questions was vested in the scribes. They 
assumed charge of the traditional supplements of the 

4 



50 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

law, they became teachers of the masses, and had chaise 
of the administration of the law. They also established 
high schools in Hebrew learning. The heads of these 
schools were known as rabbins. In them were studied, 
in addition to Hebrew religion and law, astronomy and 
mathematics, and, as early as 300 b.c, Greek literature 
and philosophy. After the destruction of the temple 
and the dispersion of Israel, the scribes, or rabbles, 
superseded the priests. 

In connection with this new effort to instruct the 
people there grew up, soon after the return from Baby- 
lon, a new institution that spread over Palestine and 
exercised untold influence upon the masses of the people. 
The It was the synagogue. The law finally read 

Synagogue. ^j^^^ there should be a synagogue wherever 
at least ten Jews lived. The synagogue was presided 
over by a body of elders and a ruler chosen from 
among the people. These formed the local sanhedrim. 
Though the synagogue was a place of worship, it per- 
formed some of the offices of a school. 

The services of the synagogue were held on the Sab- 
bath and feast days. For the benefit of the peasants 
there were services also on market days, Monday and 
Thursday. There were no clergy in charge. One of the 
elders or any other competent person might be selected 
to conduct the services. These consisted in the recital 
of a creed, prayer, reading of a certain portion of the law 
and a portion of the prophets, exposition of the Scripture 
by the leader, and the blessing. 

In the course of time the Hebrews supplemented the 
synagogue service with a Bible school for adults and 



THE SEMITIC NATIONS 51 

children. This was held in the synagogue in the after- 
noon. The teachers seem generally to have been scribes. 
The Scriptures, especially the law, were The Bibie 
studied and largely committed to memory. EiementT*^ 
The understanding of the lessons was de- Education. 
veloped by a masterful system of question and answer. 
Questions were put and answered by both pupils and 
teachers. This explains much that is characteristic of 
the gospel records of Jesus. 

The synagogue Bible schools are supposed to have 
existed as early as 80 b.c. In close connection with 
them there came to be established elementary day 
schools. It is likely that these were common before the 
time of our Saviour. They became compulsory in 64 
A.D. The law required one teacher when the number of 
pupils did not exceed twenty-five, two when the number 
exceeded forty. The pupils from five to ten studied the 
old Scriptures ; from ten to fifteen, the Mishna. If pupils 
continued their studies beyond this, they applied them- 
selves to the Gemara. The Mishna is the traditional 
oral law, and the Gemara is the body of comments upon 
the Mishna. They together constitute the Talmud. 
This vast literature was held in memory and so trans- 
mitted. The Mishna was not committed to writing until 
550 A.D. 

To a superficial view this system of education seems 
to offer little basis for enthusiastic praise. It was very 
narrow. It lacked so much that we now 
consider essential in education. As was the 
case with Oriental education generally, it consisted 
mainly in memorizing rules and doctrines for the con- 



52 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION 



duct of life. Much that is formal appears, and little that 
tends to waken and enrich the varied resources of the 
mind ; but when its fundamental conceptions of God, 
man, righteousness, and duty are considered, and the 
moral dignity and earnestness it put into human life, it 
does not seem unreasonable to say that Hebrew educa- 
tion was the noblest of all antiquity. 



HISTORICAL SUMMARY 
Exodus 

Saul anointed King 
Babylonish Captivity 
Synagogue established . 
Bible School established 
Elementary School made compulsory 
Siege of Jerusalem by Titus . 



14th century b.c. 

1095 B.C. 

586 B.C. 

6th century b.c. 

2d century B.C. 

64 A.D. 
70 A.D. 



PART II 
THE CLASSICAL NATIONS 



VI 

THE GREEKS 

To the student of either general or pedagogical history- 
there must be perennial interest in the story of the 
Greeks and the Romans. Western civiliza- 

Introduction. 

tion began with them. They wrought out 
its first chapters, and great chapters they were. 

Certain classes among them attained a range of freedom 
in thought and action far beyond that which prevailed in 
the East. They utilized it with characteristic vigor and 
energy, and achieved commensurate results. 

Athens with her statues and temples made herself the 
ornament and envy of the world, and became the centre 
of the most brilliant intellectual culture of antiquity ; 
and Rome, with commanding genius, conquered and 
controlled the greatest and longest-lived of the ancient 
so-called world empires. From both, the modern world 
has inherited priceless treasures. 

The ancient Greeks were in many respects a favored 
people. Their soil was fertile, and the climate delight- 
ful. Their country was small, but its coast- 

'' Greece. 

line was so broken and indented that no part 
of the interior was more than forty miles from the sea. 
The overflow population filled the islands of the eastern 
Mediterranean and colonized southern Italy and the west 
coast of Asia Minor. Naturally a seafaring people them- 
selves and visited by the Phoenicians, they were brought 

65 



56 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

into intimate contact with the productions and intel- 
lectual achievements of all the great peoples of their time. 

Upon minds as acute and active as theirs this exerted 
remarkable influence. They received suggestions and 
inspiration from all sources. In a manner peculiarly 
their own they improved, increased, and elaborated what 
they received, until the products of their genius eclipsed 
everything else of the kind then in the world. 

The Greeks produced the Iliad^ and the Iliad has 
retained its majesty and power to charm through all the 
Characteristic Succeeding centuries. When men gazed 
Achievements, upou the temple of Diana at Ephesus and 
the Parthenon at Athens, they beheld such harmony of 
proportion, such richness of design, and such grace of 
pillar and sculptured work as the architects of the Tigris 
and the Nile had never anticipated even in their dreams. 
The Laocoon and the masterpieces ef Phidias and his 
contemporaries exhausted the possibilities of sculpture 
and left nothing to the future but imitation. The audi- 
ences that listened to the plays of ^Eschylus and Euripides 
heard dramas as wonderful for theu* grasp of the deeper 
problems of life as for the perfection of their form. 
Many a great orator since has drunk in as a pupil the 
masterly eloquence which swayed the Athenian multi- 
tudes long ago ; and, though the world has learned 
much since then, no man has grappled with the ques- 
tions of philosophy more powerfully than the master- 
minds of Greece. 

The Greeks lacked the strong moral fibre of the Jews 
and the genius for organization that characterized the 
Romans ; but in keenness and breadth of intellectual 



THE GREEKS 57 

activity and in wealth of emotional life they excelled 
both. However varied their achievements were, one 
type of genius is manifest in all, — a sense Type of 

of proportion and harmony, the cesthetie sense. Genius. 

It blossomed forth in their works of art and ripened 
in their systems of philosophy. It is necessary to bear 
this in mind in order to understand their educational 
efforts and ideals. 

What has been said of the Greeks generally does not 
apply equally to all. They never developed a really 
national life. The history of Greece is mainly a history 
of separate states and groups of states. These exhibited 
the genius of the race in varying degrees. The extremes 
in this respect were represented by Sparta and Athens. 
To the former will apply almost nothing of what has 
been said ; to the latter, nearly all. 

SPARTA 

Back of every educational system is a philosophy more 
or less clearly formulated. Sometimes this philosophy 
embodies the ideals of highly cultured and reflective 
minds. Sometimes it is merely a practical grasp of the 
immediate and most evident demands of environment. 
This latter was the case with the Spartans. 

They were foreigners and conquerors in the land 
which they occupied. They had come from the north 
of Greece about the eleventh century b.c. 

History. 

They claimed the soil by right of conquest. 
The original inhabitants were known as Periceci, dwell- 
ers roundabout. They were the farmers, artisans, and 



58 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

business people. They paid rent and taxes, were free, 
but had no poHtical rights. There were also in the coun- 
try many slaves, Helots, the acquisition of wars waged by 
the Spartans with their neighbors. 

The Perioeci and the Helots, naturally hostile to the 
Spartans, far outnumbered them, at times, if the authori- 
ties may be believed, in the proportion of nine or ten to 
one. This fact is the key to the constitution of Lycurgus 
and the educational system developed to make it effec- 
tive. By this constitution every Spartan man, woman, 
and child was subjected to the state organization in 
every phase of life, and the whole organization was di- 
rected with reference to its self-preservation. No more 
striking comment could be attached to this statement 
than the assertion made by reliable historians that at 
intervals Helots were systematically murdered to keep 
down their numbers. 

When a child was born, a public council decided 

whether it should live or die. If in the judgment of the 

officials it was likely to grow up weak or deformed, it 

was deposited in a mountain glen and allowed to perish 

unless taken and cared for by one of the 

Early Spartan 

Life and Hclots or Perioeci. Healthy children were 

Disciphne. cared for by their parents until seven years 
of age. Then they were placed in public institutions, 
where all were trained and disciplined alike. 

The beds in the public dormitories were made of hay 
and straw. No blankets were used. After the boys 
were fifteen years old, they were compelled to sleep 
on rushes which they plucked along the banks of the 
Eurotas. They were not permitted to cut them. 



THE GREEKS 59 

Till the age of twelve they were permitted to wear a 
short woollen skirt-shaped undergarment. After that 
they wore a sort of plaid which they wrapped about the 
body, but were allowed no undergarments. They wore 
no shoes either summer or winter. 

For every slight offence they were whipped. At cer- 
tain periods whippings were inflicted merely as a test of 
endurance. At the festival of Diana-Orthia young men 
were Avhipped in front of the altar of the goddess until 
the blood streamed down their backs, sometimes until 
they dropped dead. 

In order to accustom them to endure hunger in war 
they were fed but scantily. They were, however, per- 
mitted to steal provisions to increase their food supply. 
This was designed to train them to steal upon their ene- 
mies and to forage when engaged in a campaign. If 
detected in the theft, they were severely flogged in order 
to make the next attempt more cautious and skilful. 

Upon entering the public institution at seven, the boys 
were organized into small bands as parts of larger com- 
panies. At the heads of these bands and physical 
companies were placed selected young men culture. 
of twenty years and upward. These directed the 
boys in their gymnastic exercises. Over all was a state 
officer, known as the paedonomus, with assistant offi- 
cials. 

The training was given mainly in the gymnasia. The 
exercises were designed to prepare the boys to become 
warriors. They were trained in running, leaping, ball 
play, wrestling, boxing, riding, swimming, throwing the 
discus and the javelin, military evolutions, and hunting. 



60 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

The exercise of the httle boys was at first confined to 
running, leaping, and playing ball. 

Dancing, also, was made a part of the training. The 
movements in the dances were those of battle. These 
dances were performed in time with music, sometimes 
with the boys clad in armor and arranged in companies. 

Reading and writing were not taught in the public 
institutions. In fact, all the elements of a finer education 
Mental Were either discouraged or forbidden. All 

Training. ^j^g wished to leam to read and write were 
obliged to find for themselves such teachers as they 
could and employ them at their own expense. 

The boys were, however, required to commit to mem- 
ory and sing, or rather chant, the deeds of the gods and 
heroes, war songs, and the laws of Lycurgus. They 
also committed to memory portions of Homer and 
chanted them. 

Certain virtues were carefully inculcated, good man- 
ners insisted upon, and the habit of forming clear-cut 
and incisive judgments with respect to the merits of 
citizens was systematically cultivated. The boys were 
taught to respect the aged and the laws of the state, to 
repress all evidence of suffering, to be honest, and to 
control their appetites. Intemperance was considered 
disgraceful in the highest degree. After supper they 
were frequently asked to express opinions concerning 
the excellence or defects of citizens. The answers were 
required to be short and to the point, and good reasons 
for them were demanded. If the judgments were not 
good and the answers were not as terse and correct 
as possible, the delinquent had his thumb bitten by the 



THE GREEKS 61 

master. At times the boys were sent to the tables of the 
matured and experienced men to Ksten to their discus- 
sion of state affairs. 

At the age of eighteen the boys left the public schools 
to receive their specific preparation for war in the care 
of experienced men. From twenty to thirty they were 
known distinctively as youths. During this time they 
lived in separate barracks. They were kept Military 

in constant physical and military training. Training. 
It was from among these youths that the captains for the 
bands of boys were chosen. 

Even married men until an advanced age were obliged 
to eat at the public tables to keep them from luxurious 
and enervating living. They were allowed to eat at 
home only on rare and specified occasions. 

In order that the Spartan women might be the 
mothers of warriors the girls were trained much like 
the boys, but in separate establishments. Female 

They were exercised in hopping, dancing. Training. 
running, wrestling, leaping, throwing the discus and the 
javelin, and in singing. They became very vigorous and 
healthy. 

The expenses of the public training were paid out of 
the taxes gathered from the Perioeci. 

One result of this training was a nation of sturdy 
warriors characterized by a few stern and noble public 
and private virtues. For centuries Sparta 

• •! 1 • 1 xn rrn ^^® Results. 

was considered mvmcible m battle. Ther- 
mopylae remains through the centuries as the grandest 
monument at once of the strength and the short-sighted- 
ness of its policy. It was foolish to throw away use- 



62 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

lessly the lives of hundreds of the finest fightmg men, 
and yet it was so heroic as to put a halo of glory 
around the Spartan name forever. 

There is an heroic ring in all the stories that come 
down to us out of that old Spartan life. A boy on one 
of the authorized foraging expeditions stole a fox. When 
surrounded by captors, he concealed it under his cloak. 
The animal began to gnaw at his vitals, but he never 
betrayed its presence by change of color or a twitch of 
muscle until he dropped dead. 

The Spartan mother sent her son into battle with the 
command to return with his shield or on it. When 
Pausanias, the hero of Plataea, was convicted of treason 
because of his efforts to sell out his country to the Per- 
sians, he sought refuge in a temple. The rights of sanc- 
tuary would not permit his countrymen to drag him 
forth, so they walled up the entrance to cut him off from 
escape and from food and drink and tore off the roof to 
expose him to the elements, and his mother is said to 
have laid the first stone in the doorway. 

Aside from the memory of such things, however, 
Sparta has contributed nothing to the world's grander 
life. Athens and Rome still live as factors in its civiliza- 
tion, but Sparta is dead. Out of that stern, cold, cruel 
life little could come to enlighten and refine. 

ATHENS 

In very early times Athenian life resembled that of 
Social Sparta, but Sparta fossilized and Athens 

Development, grew. The history of Athens is the record 
of a steady progress towards the establishment of a 



THE GREEKS 63 

dejmocracy, and democracies put a premium upon edu- 
cation. They increase individual responsibility and mul- 
tiply individual opportunity. 

The last king of Athens perished about the middle 
of the tenth century b.c. He was succeeded by an 
archon elected by the nobles. The constitution of Solon, 
594 B.C., gave to all classes of Athenian citizens the right 
to vote in the assembly. Through the reforms of 
Clisthenes, 509 e.g., citizenship was conferred upon all 
free inhabitants, and the battle of Marathon, 490 e.g., 
gave the democracy a triumphant supremacy in affairs 
of state. 

Two considerable portions of the population, however, 
received no direct benefit from these changes. They 
were the women and the slaves. Even the greatest of 
Athenian philosophers accepted slavery as a matter of 
course, and throughout the historic period women occu- 
pied a very inferior social position. Neither slaves nor 
women were educated. 

The Greek introduced a new thought into pedagogy. 
He seems to have come to its discovery through the 
effect of music upon his impressionable temperament. 
The Persian also recognized the value of physical exer- 
cise as a means of developing the body, but the Greek 
seems to have been the first to recognize distinctly the fact 
that appropriate exercise develops the mind. Educational 
The Athenian in his educational ideals mani- ^eai. 

fested the same aesthetic spirit which created the charm- 
ing symmetry of his temples and the unsurpassed beauty 
of his statuary. He sought neither the cumbersome 
learning of the Chinese nor the ponderous strength of 



64 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

the Spartan. His aim was to produce men vigorous, 
symmetrical, and graceful of body, and equally vigorous, 
symmetrical, and graceful of mind. Accordingly he sent 
his boys to two schools, the palaestra, or wrestling school, 
and the didaskaleion, or music school ; to the former for 
training of the body, to the latter for training of the 
mind. These were the elementary schools. 

It is not definitely known whether these schools were 
located close together or separated some distance, nor 
at which the first period of the day was spent. While 
attending them, the school-boy was in charge of an aged 
jjjg or crippled slave, known from his office as 

Pedagogue. the pedagogue. The pedagogue was re- 
sponsible for his conduct on the way to and from school 
and in the intervals between the exercises. About day- 
break they proceeded together to some appointed part of 
the city where all the boys of the same school assembled. 
At the proper time all marched to school in something 
like military order. 

The palaestra was in charge of a master known as the 
paedotribe. He trained the boys to stand on their toes, 
perform arm movements, climb a rope, run, jump, 
throw the discus and javelin, and to wrestle. 
The discus was a heavy disk of stone or 
metal, and the object was to throw it as far as possible. 
To the other exercises was added dancing, both for the 
grace it developed and for the important part it played 
in the religious festivals. 

The Athenians also laid great stress upon the ability to 
swim, but it cannot now be said with certainty whether 
they had systematic training in the art or not. 



THE GREEKS 65 

The palaestrae were under the patronage of the god 
Hermes. There was a statue of Hermes and an altar 
dedicated to him in each one. Here the boys offered 
prayers to the god before the gymnastic exercises of the 
day began. 

Our knowledge concerning many things in Greek edu- 
cation is very unsatisfactory. Among the uncertain 
things is the ownership of buildings. As far as known 
the city of Athens never erected school-buildings for in- 
tellectual training, though it seems probable that it owned 
the grounds and buildings of the wrestling schools. It 
appointed and supported teachers for neither palaestra 
nor didaskaleion, but yet all teachers were in some 
measure under the supervision of the council of the 
Areopagus, which had the care of the morals of the 
city. Teachers were supported by the tuition fees which 
the parents paid. Children of poorer parents were 
sometimes taught in the open air or in public porticos. 

The didaskaleia were under the guardianship of 
Apollo and the Muses. To them the boys paid their 
devotions on entering school, after respectfully saluting 
the teacher. The furniture of the rooms was very 
scanty. The boys either squatted on the ^j^^ 

floor or sat on low benches. The teacher Didaskaleion. 
had a higher seat. The discipline was severe. The 
incentives were the fear of punishment and the hope of 
reward. The school day was long. The pedagogue did 
not lead his young charge home till nearly or quite 
sunset. The routine of school work, however, was 
frequently and pleasantly interrupted by holidays for 
religious festivals. In the palaestra there were special 

6 



66 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

festivals in honor of Hermes ; and in the music schools, 
in honor of Apollo and the Muses. On such occasions 
there were competitive exercises and sacrifices. Before 
the sacrifices the winning competitors were crowned 
with wreaths. It was a great day for a boy when he 
could go home from school with a victor's wreath on his 
head. 

All elementary literary instruction in the Athenian 
schools seems to have had its beginning in efforts to 
teach boys to sing religious and patriotic hymns and to 
chant the great epics of their country. Musical training, 
Musical rendered important by a sense of its exalted 

Training. utility, coutinucd to hold a high place in 
Athenian esteem, and was supported in it by philosophic 
theory. " Music," Aristotle said, representing the pro- 
foundest Greek thought on the subject, " brings harmony, 
first into the human being himself by putting an end to 
the conflict between his passions and his intelligent will, 
and then, as a consequence, into his relations with his 
fellows." 

The boys sang hymns every day, and, about their 
thirteenth year, they were taught to play accompaniments 
on the cithara. 

As early, no doubt, as Solon, reading, writing, and 
arithmetic were taught in the didaskaleion. The reading 
Literary lessous Were taken mainly from Homer and 

Curriculum. Hcsiod. The Iliad and the Odyssey were at 
once the Greek boy's Bible and text-books on history and 
geography. 

The pupils were taught to read in the old way re- 
peated through the centuries. They first learned to 



THE GREEKS 67 

know the letters and their names, and then spelled easy 
syllables and words. When sufficiently skilled in this, 
the teacher dictated to them portions of poems, which 
they wrote on tablets. The written exercises of one day 
became the reading lessons of the next. There was one 
difficulty in the reading lesson which does not trouble the 
modern school-boy, though he has troubles enough that 
are peculiarly his own. In Greek writing there was no 
spacing between words and clauses. Before the reading 
exercise began, the teacher generally separated the words 
for the pupils with punctuation marks. The first time 
the lessons were read over for readiness of utterance, 
and afterwards for elocutionary effect. 

The first writing lessons were done in sand placed in 
a box or scattered on the ground. The pupils imitated 
models set by the teacher. Later they wrote on wax 
tablets with a stylus. 

The lessons in arithmetic were very elementary. Only 
the simple operations of practical life were taught. 
Operations were performed with pebbles or 

, mi 1 • Arithmetic. 

an abacus, these devices were necessary 
because, like most other ancient nations, the Greeks 
lacked a convenient system of notation. To indicate 
numbers they used the letters of their alphabet modified 
with marks and supplemented with several others 
selected from a foreign alphabet. Operations with these 
were exceedingly complicated and difficult. The follow- 
ing is a comparatively easy problem taken for illustration 
from Gow's valuable history of Greek mathematics. The 
work in Arabic notation indicates the nature of the pro- 
cess. 



68 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 






5 


a 






M 


M 


./5 .« 




a 

M 


/ 


// 


T 




a 


r 


xe 



265 






265 






40000 , 


12000 , 


1000 


12000 , 


3600 , 


300 


1000 , 


300 , 


25 



70225 



M 



The Greek abacus had strings for the different denom- 
inations. A ball or pebble on one string indicated 
one ; on another, ten ; on another, a hundred ; and 
so on. 

About the middle of the fourth century drawing, 
geometry, geography, and, a little later, grammar were 
Additions added to the course of study. It is proba- 
te the ble that there then gradually resulted a sep- 
"^"*^" aration of the advanced studies from the 
others and the establishment of secondary schools. 

When boys were about fifteen, they were freed from 
the oversight of the pedagogue and ceased to attend the 
elementary schools. They then entered the gymnasium 
to receive their final physical training to fit them for the 
duties of citizenship. 

The gymnasia were state institutions. Solon had two 
erected, the Academy, immortalized by the teaching of 
Plato, to the northwest of the city, and the 
' Cynosai^es to the east. In the time of Peri- 
cles was added a third, the Lyceum, to be made as 
deathless in fame as the Academy by the intellectual 
triumphs of Aristotle. Around the gymnasia were pub- 
lic parks and pleasure grounds. The Lyceum especially 



THE GREEKS 69 

was noted for the shady wood and beautiful gardens in 
the midst of which it was located. 

The exercises of the gymnasia were in charge of state 
officers. They were collectively called the pentathlon, 
and consisted of running, leaping, discus- Gymnastic 
throwing, wrestling, and boxing. They were Training. 
much more severe than the similar exercises in the 
palsestrae. 

Before wrestling, the body of the gymnast was rubbed 
over with oil and strewed with sand. After the bout, 
the body was scraped with a strigil, and, after a bath in 
cold water, it was again anointed with oil. Then came 
a rest with the naked body exposed to the sun ; so the 
skin became brown as a chestnut. This training pro- 
duced the models for those sculptured gods that have 
ever since delighted the world. 

At eighteen the boys graduated and became ephebi, — 
youths. They were now enrolled on the register of the 
deme, or ward, to which they belonged, and 

•^ TheEphebi. 

were introduced to the citizens by the archon 
at a public meeting. On this occasion they were armed 
with spear and shield at the public expense. They then 
swore in the temple of Aglauros never to disgrace their 
arms nor desert a companion in the ranks, to transmit 
the fatherland greater than they had received it, to ob- 
serve the laws, and to honor the religion of their fathers. 
The ephebic period lasted two years. Much of this 
time was spent outside of the city in garrisons or in 
policing the country districts. Gradually much loose- 
ness seems to have crept into the maintenance of ephebic 
service. 



70 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

The early history of Grecian higher education does 
not belong strictly to Athens, but the higher educational 
efforts of the Athenians followed the earlier attempts in 
a natural succession. 

From the seventh to the fifth centuries b.c. there arose 
in different parts of the Greek world philosophers who 
The Early gathered disciples about them. They specu- 
Phiiosophers. latcd mainly on the nature and origin of 
things in the natural world. They attributed the origin of 
things to water, fire, or air regarded as animate primal 
substance, or to animate material Infinity. The solutions 
they found for the problems of the universe were crude 
enough, but their efforts were the beginning of that 
scientific and philosophic activity which contributed so 
much to the glory of Greece and enabled her to exert 
powerful influence after her glory had vanished. Some 
of these philosophers were masters of the mathematics 
and astronomy of their day, and contributed materially 
to the development of these sciences. Thales, the first 
of them, introduced geometry into Greece. 

The most interesting of these early philosophical 
schools was the Pythagorean. 

Pythagoras was born on the island of Samos about 
580 B.C. He founded a school in Crotona, southern 
The School of Italy. His school was a moral society on a 
Pythagoras. religious basis. Though Pythagoras was in 
all probability an Ionic Greek, the spirit of the organiza- 
tion was Doric. The members formed a brotherhood. 
They were disciplined to implicit obedience, physical 
hardihood, and fidelity to friends. They were fed from 
a common fund, and the fare was simple. 



THE GREEKS 71 

Pythagoras was a man of magnificent physique and 
added to the impressiveness of his presence by remark- 
able gravity of manner, by letting his hair and beard 
grow long, and by wearing a white robe and a crown of 
gold. 

The younger students served a sort of novitiate for 
several years. In this period the philosopher taught 
them from behind a curtain. Certain parts of his doc- 
trine were withheld from them as mysteries. These 
were taught to advanced students only, with whom inter- 
course was much freer. One of these mysteries was 
that the earth is a sphere revolving around a central fire. 

Pythagoras and his followers taught that number is 
the origin, or essence, of things, and that the laws of 
numbers are the laws of things. He accord- Pythagorean 
ingly laid great stress on mathematics. He Doctrine. 
discovered that the square of the hypotenuse of a right- 
angled triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the 
other two sides. He gave scientific form to geometry. 

The aim of his instruction and discipline was to pro- 
duca harmony in human life corresponding to that which 
he found in the natural world,— harmony between soul 
and body, and harmony in society by finding each man's 
place in the social order and fitting him for it. The basis 
of all harmony and moral action he found in religion, 
and religious exercises were frequent in the school. 
One of the potent means of producing harmony in life 
he sought in music. He worked out and taught the 
mathematical relations of musical notes, and so founded 
the science of music. 

One of the peculiar theories attributed to him was the 



72 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

doctrine of the transmigration of souls. Coupled with 
it was the idea of a future life and retribution, and it 
thus became a source of ethical power. 

The aristocratic tendency of the school invoked popu- 
lar hatred, and it was suppressed by mob violence. The 
End of the suppressiou scattered Pythagoreans over the 
School. Greek countries, and noble evidences of their 

influence can be traced through a number of centuries. 

For a time philosophical inquiry was obscured by the 
activity and popularity of a class of teachers known as 
Popularity of Sophists. They wandered from place to 
the Sophists, place, but finally their work centred in 
Athens. From the middle of the fifth century b.c. they 
monopolized higher education nearly a hundred years. 

The reason for their popularity is not far to seek. 
The battle of Marathon affected a great change in 
Athenian life. In the older order of things the man was 
almost entirely lost in the state. Without question he 
accepted and respected its social ideas and religion as 
the sacred heritage of the past, and he devoted his life 
to its service. Marathon gave Athens the leadership of 
a large part of Greece and established the democracy. 
This offered large opportunity for the exercise of per- 
sonal ambition, and men learned to place their own in- 
terests before those of the state. The Sophists served 
this new spirit. 

The most noted of these teachers were Protagoras, 
Gorgias, and Prodicus. Protagoras was the first to 
Work of the comc to Athens. He taught grammar, style. 
Sophists. poetry, and oratory. Some of those who 

came later taught mathematics. 



THE GREEKS 73 

The Sophists early developed the science of rhetoric, 
and devoted pre-eminent attention to it and to disputa- 
tion. They taught in rooms rented in the gymnasia and 
in the public squares of the city. Their pupils were 
taken principally from among the young men of the 
ephebic class. 

As a class they were sceptical with respect to the old 
philosophical search after truth. The natural tendency 
of their work was to exalt victory in argument above 
truth and right. Some of them advertised their ability 
to train pupils to win even if maintaining the poorer 
side of a question in debate. Much of their teaching 
was mechanical and shallow. With it all went the cul- 
tivation of a disregard for the old religion and social 
discipline. These things brought upon them the attacks 
of thoughtful and conservative people, in spite of the 
fact that among them were earnest men and excellent 
teachers. The later philosophers attacked them bitterly, 
also, because they exacted pay for their services. 

The individualism growing out of the changed condi- 
tion of affairs in Athens and fostered by the Sophists 
threatened the state with weakness and disintegration. 
Therefore profound thinkers and sincere 

^ . ;The Great 

patriots sought to give society a new unity philosophical 
and power. This effort gave rise to the first schools. 
great schools of philosophy. Eventually there were 
four, the Academic, the Peripatetic, the Stoic, and the 
Epicurean. On the threshold of these philosophic 
movements stands Socrates, one of the noblest and most 
striking figures in the history of his country. 

In the palmiest days of Athens, when the Parthenon 



74 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

crowned the Acropolis and the Agora was resplendent 
with the gleam of marble pillar and statue, Socrates was 
Socrates. ^^^ ^^ ^^^ most prominent features of the 

470-399 B.C. city's life. Wherever he tarried in public 
a group of his nimble-witted countrymen was sure to 
gather about him ; for he had a wonderful way of ask- 
ing questions, and a wonderful way of weaving into 
his questions illustrations drawn from the common 
employments of men. 

In appearance he was strangely out of harmony with 
the beauty of his environment. He was careless in 
dress. His body was massive. His eyes projected. 
His nose was depressed, and the nostrils were dilated 
and upturned. He shambled in his gait. The comic 
poets aimed many shafts of wit at him. Yet in the 
man's spirit there was something that made him grander 
than anything else in Athens. He was one of that select 
number of men in the world's history destined to die 
because of the good they have sought to do. 

He was bom near Athens, 469 b.c. He several times, 
before he became a public teacher, had engaged in mili- 
tary service and distinguished himself by his courage 
and indifference to hardship. He showed the heroism 
of his temper, once as an official and once as a private 
citizen, by refusing to violate the law of the state at the 
bidding of the tyrants who governed it. His father was 
a sculptor and educated the son to the occupation, but 
he dropped the fashioning of marble for the higher 
employment of fashioning the minds of men. 

In his teaching Socrates avoided, as much as possible, 
direct statements of truth. His method was to elicit 



V-' 



THE GREEKS 75 



statements from others by means of questions. These 
questions were of two kinds, both designed to awaken 
thought and lead to clear and definite propo- ^j^^ socratic 
sitions, one to convince of error, the other to Method. 

develop a fundamental truth. Questions of the first kind 
have been called ironical ; those of the second Socrates 
himself termed maieutic, — birth-giving. 

If he learned that a young man entertained an opinion 
which seemed to him erroneous, he sought opportunity 
to engage him in conversation. When the opportunity 
came, he asked a series of questions which either em- 
bodied propositions challenging assent or suggested a 
line of thought which made necessary a proposition 
which Socrates desired. So, step by step, the man 
was led on until suddenly and unexpectedly brought 
face to face with the logical consequences of his opinion. 
He was thus either convinced of his error or rendered 
unable to maintain it with argument. This was ironical 
questioning. In a similar manner questions were put to 
men whose opinions or purposes in life were not yet 
clearly formed, but with the opposite result. Ever since 
he employed the method such questioning has been 
called Socratic. 

Socrates had little more respect for the theories of the 
early philosophers than the Sophists themselves, and he 
was not in sympathy with the conservatives who opposed 
them. They were looking back to the old order of things, 
he was looking forward to a new. He made Purpose of 
a sincere but inadequate effort to reform so- Socrates. 

ciety. His aim was moral, and that accounts for his 
method. He adopted as fundamental the proposition 



76 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

that " Man is the measure of all things." He meant by 
it that in every man's hfe lies the truth whose practice 
accomplishes the welfare of both the individual and 
society. In other words, he believed that the individual 
represents the common, or universal, life of mankind. 
His motto, therefore, was " Know thyself." 

Men, as he thought, think lazily or hastily, and, there- 
fore, form opinions, which are individual, but fail to dis- 
cover truth, which is universal. As a consequence, they 
conduct their lives poorly, are driven asunder by per- 
sonal ambitions, and thus weaken and destroy society. 
He devised his method of questioning to waken men to 
active and careful thought, so that they might discover 
truth and live virtuous lives. He failed to see that men 
may know and yet not do. 

Socrates himself formulated no system of philosophy, 

but certain more or less clearly defined philosophical 

conceptions directed all his activity, and he inspired 

Plato, the first of the great philosophers, 

Relation of ' . . 

Socrates to who was for many years his disciple. He 
Philosophy. turned the attention of thoughtful men from 
the physical theories of the old philosophers to the study 
of man himself. He looked upon the purpose manifest 
in the fitness of parts of the creation to one another as 
evidence of the divine origin of things. He believed in 
the immortality of the soul, and spent the last moments 
of his life in discoursing about the activity and happiness 
he anticipated in the future life. He first put into Greek 
thought the idea of the individual faithful to the purity, 
union, and advancement of society in the free exercise 
of the attributes of his manhood. 



THE GREEKS 77 

The advocates of the old order of things and men 
instigated by personal resentment engendered by his 
teaching and his attacks upon the Sophists finally had 
him condemned to death. Men never think of that old 
man calmly drinking the poisoned chalice without a deep 
feeling of admiration and reverence. 

After Socrates came Plato. He was born of a noble 
Athenian family, 429 b.c. He taught in the park of the 
gymnasium known as the Academy. From piatoand 
this his school took its name. He originated ^is Theory. 
the theory of Ideas. Universal truths he called ideas. 
He considered them self-existent substances, or essences. 
The highest of them was the "Good." He thought of 
them as occupying an independent world beyond the 
limits of the world of sense, and regarded them as the 
causes and patterns of sensuous existences, through 
which they imperfectly reveal themselves. 

The souls of men, in his view, are not only immortal, 
but also existed in a high state previous to this life. The 
memory of that higher state still lingers in the souls of a 
few men, and is awakened by the beautiful things of 
earth to an intense desire, a madness he called it, to 
attain to a knowledge of the truth. These are the wise 
men. Dialectic, or philosophy, is the means by which 
they pass from the contemplation and enjoyment of 
earthly beauties to the contemplation of the beauty of 
"ideas." Last of all, they pass to the contemplation 
and enjoyment of the "good." These are the men who 
should du-ect the affairs of human society. 

In the formulation of his theory of the state Plato 
treated it as one living being. He analyzed man's soul 



78 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

into three faculties, — (1) intellect, or reason ; (2) spirit, 
or courage ; (3) desire, or appetite. In the state, he 
regarded merchants and producers as repre- 
State and seutiug its appetite ; the soldiers, its spirit ; 
Education. ^^^ ^^^ phllosophcrs, its intellect. The har- 
mony of the state was to be . preserved by having these 
classes live separate and attend to their respective func- 
tions, all under control of the philosophers. 

In this rather remarkable state everything was to be 
subordinated to it. Family life, in the ordinary sense, 
and private property were to be abolished. Marriage 
was to be regulated by the state ; healthy children 
were to be its property, and delicate children put to 
death. 

In harmony with his psychologic theory and plan of 
society Plato wrote the first scientific treatise on educa- 
tion ever produced in Europe. He advocated gymnastic 
training and the study of arithmetic, geometry, astron- 
omy, harmonics, and philosophy. 

This crude and unnatural plan of state organization 

was, at the time, entirely impracticable. In the Middle 

Ages the state of society which prevailed for 

several hundred years resembled its general 

features strikingly. 

The theory of " ideas" is very beautiful because of its 
exalted view of truth. It has always, since his day, 
deeply influenced a certain type of high-souled and 
thoughtful men. Mingled with thoughts taken from 
other Greek philosophers and with Oriental elements, it 
took a strong hold upon the intellectual life of Alexan- 
dria. In this modified form it is known as Neo-Pla- 



THE GREEKS 79 

tonism. This made the last struggle of pagan philosophy 
against Christianity. 

The Peripatetic school of philosophy came into exist- 
ence next after the Academy. It was founded by Aris- 
totle. He was bom of Greek parents in ^ ^ ^ 

^ _ The Founder of 

Stagira, Macedonia, 384 b.c. He studied the Peripatetic 
under Plato nearly twenty years. At the age school. 

of forty he became the tutor of Alexander the Great. 
He held this office three years. He afterwards returned 
to Athens and taught in the Lyceum. From the fact 
that he walked back and forth under the trees or in the 
porticos while teaching, his school received its name, 
for peripatetic means walking about. 

Aristotle was the greatest of all the Greek philoso- 
phers, a man of genuinely scientific mind. He was one 
of the greatest intellects the world has ever known. 
Dante called him "the master of those that know." 
He was the first great systematic inductive thinker. To 
find a basis, for instance, for his theory of an ideal 
state, he wrote out the constitutional histories of more 
than two hundred and fifty states. From these he 
selected data for his generalizations and recommenda- 
tions. 

He wrote treatises on nearly all departments of learn- 
ing cultivated in his time. Among them were works 
on rhetoric, logic, poetry, morals, politics, 
physics, and metaphysics. He wrote the first intellectual 
systematic treatise on psychology. He ap- Activity. 

proached the subject from the physiological stand-point. 
His general physical theories now mainly sound like 
fanciful guesses, but he wrote a scientific zoology. He 



80 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

originated the science of deductive logic. Some of his 
works are still studied as text-books. 

Aristotle rejected Plato's theory of "ideas." He 
thought that men must find truth by harmonizing the 
General revelatiou of divine intelligence in human life 

Theory. ^yith the revelatiou of it in nature. Above 

all other existences is the Prime Mover, the Supreme 
Mind, to the contemplation of whom man may rise. 

He also did not accept Plato's ideas of state organiza- 
tion. He believed the purpose of instruction to be the 
development of the imperfect, untrained child into the 
well-trained and patriotic citizen. The curriculum for 
the accomplishment of the purpose was to include 
gymnastics, music, drav^ng, grammar, rhetoric, philoso- 
phy, and politics. 

Just after Aristotle's death his school was small, but 
in the latter half of the Middle Ages he reigned supreme 
in the intellectual activity of Western Europe. 

Soon after the death of Aristotle the third school was 
established. Its founder was a foreigner, Zeno, who 
zeno and brought with him to Athens Oriental charac- 
the stoics. teristics of mind. He was born on the island 
of Cyprus, of Phoenician parents, 340 b.c. He studied 
in Greece many years. He taught in a portico on the 
north side of the Athenian market-place. It was called 
the 2'Toa TtouiXTj, — ^painted porch. For this reason the 
school was named Stoic. 

The belief of the Stoics was a kind of materialistic 
pantheism. God they considered corporeal. The origi- 
nal fiery ether was the substance of God. Out of it all 
things were produced, and it pervades all things. It is 



THE GREEKS 81 

the living soul of the world. The souls of men are 
also corporeal. Men and the gods are the highest mani- 
festation of the world soul. After death a g^^j^ 
man's soul returns to its source and becomes pwiosophy. 
incorporated with it. The theory carried with it the 
idea of unity and law. It was an appeal to broad sym- 
pathy. It was the basis of the Stoic precept, — " Live 
according to nature." 

The Stoics taught three branches of philosophy, — 
physics, logic, and ethics. They studied physics, nature, 
to find a guide to living; logic, to master studies and 
methods and tests of knowledge ; and ethics, ^^J^s. 

as the highest of all sciences, in order to lead noble 
lives. 

One of the features of their ethical system was the 
effort to train men to be superior to pain and pleas- 
ure. To allow one's self to seek pleasure or to dis- 
play emotion because of misfortune was considered 
unmanly. 

Stoic philosophy had the value of a high type of re- 
ligion. It was the greatest school of morals the pagan 
world ever produced. It maintained itself six centuries. 
It was peculiarly adapted to the Roman temper and was 
specially influential among the Romans. Seneca, Epic- 
tetus, and Marcus Aurelius were the best of its later 
representatives. 

Side by side with Stoicism existed Epicureanism. The 
school was named after its founder, Epicurus. He lived 
contemporary with Zeno. Like Plato, he bequeathed 
his property, or at least part of it, to his school. 

The Epicureans believed the universe to be made up 

6 



82 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

of numberless and varied living atoms. They thought 
the soul to be diffused over the whole body, and to con- 
sist of " atoms of the most perfect lightness and round- 
ness." 

They were the opposites of the Stoics. They regarded 
pleasure the highest good. They esteemed that man 
The wisest who escaped most pain and attained 

Epicureans. the fullest measurc of pleasure. Virtue was 
valued by them as a means to pleasure. 

Later Epicureanism became very corrupt. It fostered 
indulgence of sensuous appetites and passions. Its 
founder was a high-minded man, but his school after 
him produced no great character. 

The intense and brilliant intellectual activity of Athens 

made her the centre of Greek culture. It almost kept 

her glory undimmed even when she had lost her 

autonomy. The conquests of Alexander carried the 

Greek language into many lands, and the 

Conclusion. -, ^ 

Greek teacher and Greek learnmg went with 
it. When Greece was absorbed into the Roman empire 
the Greeks became the teachers of Rome. The philo- 
sophic schools of Athens were self-perpetuating organiza- 
tions, and they made Athens the great university city of 
the empire. Many powerful rivals arose, but she main- 
tained her supremacy long, and was finally eclipsed by 
x\.lexandria alone. 

Later her schools were closed. The ravages of time 
shattered the statues of the Acropolis and disrupted the 
walls of the Parthenon. But in another age enthusiasm 
for things true and beautiful brought Greece to life again, 
and the charm of her genius is still potent. 



THE GREEKS 



83 



HISTORICAL SUMMARY 




Spartan Migration 


. 11th century b.c 


Constitution of Lycurgus 




9th century b.c 


Death of Codrus, last king of Athens 




. 10th century b.c 


Constitution of Solon 




594 B.c 


Constitution of Clisthenes 




490 B.c 


Early Greek Philosophers 




7th-5th century b.c 


Pythagoras 




580 B.C 


Sophists 




600-300 B.C 


Socrates 




470 B.c 


Plato 




429 B.C. 


Aristotle 




384 B.C 


Zeno 




340 B.C. 


Epicurus . . . . . 




341 B.C, 



VII 
ROME 

The Romans were very unlike the Athenians. They 
were proud and coarse-grained to the point of brutality. 
They developed neither literature nor art nor philosophy 
National ^^^^^ ^^^^ learned from the Greeks. There 

Character. ^as, however, a rugged manliness and inten- 
sity in their character which the Greeks had not. They 
were conquering warriors, organizers, and law-makers, 
men of practical genius. 

Rome performed great services for humanity. She 
did for many diverse and, frequently, hostile peoples 
what the Greek states could not do for themselves. She 
welded them together into national units, and then disci- 
plined them into the broader life of the colossal empire 
into which she had incorporated them. She gave to 
Greek and Jew a wider scope of activity and influence 
than could otherwise have been theirs, and finally to the 
apostles of the meek and lowly Nazarene an unrivalled 
field for missionary enterprise. 

One source of the tremendous power of Rome and 
the richest ornament of its history was the home life 
Early Home ^^^^ prevailed Until wealth and luxury began 
Life. to corrupt everything that was Roman. Fire 

was kept always burning on the altar of Vesta, the god- 
dess of the hearth, and every household had its lares 
and penates. There was a freedom and dignity vested 
84 



ROME 86 

in Roman motherhood unique in the pagan world, and 
home influences were correspondingly powerful and en- 
nobling. The charming type of the Roman mother is rep- 
resented by Cornelia placing her hands on the heads of her 
boys with the proud assertion "These are my jewels." 

In appreciation of the dignity of the mother's office, 
it seems to have been quite common to give the girls at 
least elementary schooling. Possibly the first mention 
of schools in Roman history occurs in the story of Vir- 
ginia. She was murdered 305 b.c, and the narrative 
states that the crime was committed while she was on 
her way to school. In later times girls sometimes 
attended secondary schools or even took a higher course. 

Rome began as a military settlement on the Tiber. It 
early became a republic. Its growth was phenomenal, 
and yet the teacher came to it but slowly. The reason 
no doubt, lies in its almost unbroken series of wars, de- 
manding ceaseless activity and such gifts of courage for 
battle and good sense for the administration of affairs 
among crude peoples as are better learned in practice 
than in the school-room. To this must be added also 
the lack of literature. Aside from legends, hymns, and 
popular poems, there does not seem to have been any 
Latin literature to teach until about 233 b.c. At that 
time Livius Andronicus translated the Odyssey into 
Latin. This became the standard reading book of the 
elementary schools. 

It is claimed that there were schools as early as 
the end of the fourth century b.c, but the j;^,y 

first definitely recorded school was opened Education. 
260 B.C. by Spurius Carvilius, a freedman. 



86 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

The greatest impetus to educational activity came 
through the conquest of Greece. By the victory at 
Pydna, 168 b.c, and the destruction of Corinth, 147 b.c, 
the Romans completed their mastery of that country, 
and Rome was soon filled M^ith Greek teachers. By that 
time, too, the country was well organized ; and its busi- 
ness interests, with the range of opportunity they offered 
to young men, created a great demand for education. 
The empire, beginning with Augustus Caesar, largely in- 
creased this. 

By the middle of the second century school work was 
fairly well organized and two grades established, to be 
soon followed by a third. The schools at first were not 
supported by the state, nor were they under state super- 
vision. 

The teacher of an elementary school was called 
magister ludi or literator. The course included reading. 
Elementary Writing, and arithmetic. After the alphabet 
Education. and Spelling came the reading of the Latin 
Odyssey. Writing exercises were done, as with the 
Greeks, on wax tablets with a stylus. The pupils were 
sometimes prepared for them by tracing letters inscribed 
on tablets or engraved in wood. Arithmetical calcula- 
tions were made with the fingers, pebbles, or an aba- 
cus, and the results recorded on tablets. The Roman 
schools were thoroughly utilitarian in spirit and found 
no use for music. 

The pupils were required to commit to memory the 
Laws of the Twelve Tables. Maxims and precepts were 
dictated to them as composition exercises and likewise 
committed to memory. 



ROME 87 

When twelve years of age, the pupils left the element- 
ary school and commenced the secondary course. The 
teacher of a secondary school was called a secondary 
grammaticus or literatus. The literator had Education. 
low social standing, but the literatus ranked high, and 
sometimes acquired a fortune through wealthy patrons. 

There were two kinds of secondary schools, Greek 
and Latin. Pupils generally took the course in Greek 
first and then the Latin. 

The studies were grammar, iEsop, Homer, compo- 
sition, musical rhythm, declamation, rhetoric, literary 
criticism, and, sometimes, geography. When the native 
literature developed, Vergil and Cicero were studied in 
the Latin course. 

Pupils of this grade occasionally studied geometry for 
the sake of mensuration. This seems to have been 
done under special teachers. 

Portions of the literature were committed to memory. 
Much stress was laid on composition. Dictation exer- 
cises were frequent. Fables and short stories were re- 
produced. Poems were paraphrased. Sentences were 
transformed by change of number, case, tense, and ar- 
rangement of parts. They were also explained and 
expanded. The pupils were likewise drilled in versifi- 
cation. 

At fifteen or sixteen the boy laid aside the toga prae- 
texta of his boyhood and assumed the toga virilis, the 
distinctive dress of the Roman citizen. Then he pre- 
pared for his life occupation. There were four fields of 
activity open to his ambition, the farm, the army, poli- 
tics, and law. 



88 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

To learn farming he placed himself under the training 
of a practical manager of a farm. If he wished to pre- 
Professionai P^^^ himself for military office, he attached 
Training. himself to the staff of some commander. To 
prepare for political activity or the forum, he connected 
himself under instruction with some orator and jurist. 
The training was thus very practical. 

Political and law students frequently supplemented 
their private training with a course of study in a school 
Higher °^ rhetorfc or oratory. In these schools the 

Schools. students wrote and delivered orations and 

tried fictitious cases. They studied rhetoric, literature, 
criticism, and law. As a means to more perfect equip- 
ment they also applied themselves to mathematics and 
philosophy. These studies were generally pursued un- 
der special teachers. In the latter days of the republic 
considerable attention was devoted to Roman history. 

In later times, young men who, like Cicero and 
Caesar, developed scholarly ambition, resorted to Athens 
and Rhodes to complete their education, particularly in 
philosophy and oratory. Besides the great schools of 
Athens and Rhodes, there were university schools in 
Appollonia, Mitylene, Tarsus, Pergamus, Massilia (Mar- 
seilles), and Alexandria. 

A number of Roman writers set forth more or less 
complete theories of education. Among these were 
Educational Ciccro and Seneca, but the most comprehen- 
Theorists. givc expressiou of theory has come down to 
us in the Institutes of Oratory by Quintilian. 

Quintilian was born in Cal^urris, Spain, 38 a.d. He 
studied at Rome, and, after a short absence, he returned 



ROME 89 

to practise law there. Later he opened a school in 
oratory. As a training for this, he gave a broad gram- 
matical and literary culture. He wrote the Institutes to 
present his views on the education of the orator. 

Besides being a treatise on oratory, the Institutes re- 
view the whole field of educational theory. Quintilian's 
views are sensible and practical. Because of the decay 
that had already begun in family life, he preferred the 
school to private instruction, which was quite common 
in Rome. He advised that the shapes of the pedagogy of 
letters should be impressed on the minds of tii® institutes. 
the children with the names. He recommended that 
choice passages of prose and poetry be memorized to 
increase the power of memory. He thought that work 
should be graded to the ability of the pupil, and that 
discipline should be mild. 

With Quintilian began a new era in Roman education. 
Domitian gave him permission to wear the insignia of 
consular rank. Vespasian, 70-79 a.d., fixed upon him 
and a few other rhetoricians a salary out ^ater 

of the public treasury. The same emperor Education, 
began the University of Rome by erecting a fine building, 
the Athenaeum, for teachers of grammar and rhetoric. 

Changes of this character came rapidly. Antoninus 
Pius, 138-161 A.D., granted to a certain number of 
teachers of grammar, rhetoric, and philosophy in the 
towns and cities throughout the empire exemption from 
taxes, from holding municipal offices, from quartering 
soldiers, and from military service. 

Marcus Aurelius fixed a liberal salary on two teachers 
of each of the four philosophical schools in Athens and 



90 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

on two teachers of oratory. Municipalities also estab- 
lished schools and paid salaries, and in 376 a.d. Gratian 
ordered state salaries to be paid to the grammarians and 
rhetoricians in the Gallic capitals equal to their municipal 
salaries. 

By this time the courses of learning had become well 
fixed. A liberal education was regarded as covering 
grammar, rhetoric, dialectic, music, arithmetic, geometry, 
and astronomy. About the end of the fourth century 
the first three became known as the trivium, and the 
remaining four as the quadrivium. 

Throughout the history of the empire the University 
of Alexandria continued to be the most perfectly organ- 
ized scientific school within its borders. It owed its 
existence to Ptolemy I, He founded the great library 
of Alexandria in the third century b.c, and established 
in connection with it a school which he called 

Founding of 

University of the Muscum. He erected for it a stately 
Alexandria, jjuii^ing in a noble neighborhood. Near it 
were the Serapeum, the royal palace, the amphitheatre, 
and the gymnasia. A broad portico extended along its 
front. Opening upon it were doors leading into the 
lecture-halls. A number of professors were lodged in 
the building. 

Ptolemy liberally endowed the professorships, and 

invited the most eminent men of his time to fill the 

chairs. His successors continued his policy. 

Its Work 

They erected additions to the building and 
increased the teaching force. 

In the University were professors of grammar, rhet- 
oric, poetry, philosophy, astronomy, music, mathematics, 



ROME 91 

and medicine. It was pre-eminent in medicine, mathe- 
matics, geography, astronomy, and grammar. 

Three of the four greatest mathematicians of the 
Greek world taught in the Museum. EucHd is said to 
have founded its course in mathematics. It was here 
that he wrought out his geometry, — until quite recently 
the text-book on the subject throughout Europe and still 
used. The earliest algebraic treatise now known was 
the work of another scholar of the Museum, Diophantus, 
who lived in the fourth century a.d. It treats of the^ 
solution of equations. Another, Eratosthenes, in the*' 
third century b.c, placed geography on a mathematical 
and astronomical basis. He was the first to calculate 
the magnitude of the earth by measuring an arc of the 
meridian. Two of its professors in later years studied 
the valves of the heart and their functions, and the 
sensor and motor nerves. 

From the beginning Greek philosophical ideas were in 
the Museum mingled with Oriental religious conceptions. 
Out of the combination grew the Neo-Pla- 
tonic movement in the third century a.d. It 
came to its end m the fifth with the tragic death of its last 
gifted advocate, the beautiful and cultured Hypatia. The 
Museum itself was destroyed by fire in the seventh century. 

One of the interesting employments of the historian 
of to-day is to trace the influence of the Greeks and the 
Romans upon the civilization of the modem world. In 
this influence they are complementary, for concluding 
they were strangely contrasted in mental Remarks, 
characteristics. Long ago, in his De Arte Poetica, Horace 
pointed out the contrast. 



92 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

The ideal of the Greek was aesthetic. He sought grace 
and symmetry, harmony and proportion. His aesthetic 
genius was as manifest in his physical training as in his 
intellectual pursuits. It finally became mature in philos- 
ophy, for philosophy is the souPs effort to discover the 
inner unity and harmony of the universe. So the Greek 
became a man of reflection, a cultured man of thought. 

The ideal of the Roman, on the other hand, before he 
yielded to Greek influence, was practical. " The Roman 
boys," Horace said, " learn by long processes to divide 
an as into a hundred parts," Their elders sought to 
make them skilful and effective men of action. They 
became the great lawmakers of antiquity, the rulers and 
civilizers of the world. 

It is evident that the history of Roman education is 
largely a continuation of that of the Greeks. Almost 
without exception the universities were located in Greek 
cities and were founded prior to the Roman occupa- 
tion. Secondary education originated with Greek teach- 
ers, and even the elementary schools owed something to 
Greek literature. Yet it would be a great mistake to 
ascribe the educational activity of Rome entirely to Greek 
genius. The Roman mind was too virile and to perva- 
sive throughout the empire to permit such to be the case. 
Every phase of education was modified by it and re- 
vealed something of its practical temper, and finally the 
same genius that organized the vast conquests of the im- 
perial city on the Tiber applied itself to the organization 
of its school work. Before the empire entered upon its 
period of decay it had the most extensive and thoroughly 
organized system of education that had yet existed. The 



ROME 



93 



same causes that corrupted the empire and led to its 
destruction ate the life out of the schools. They lan- 
guished and died, and the German barbarians swept away 
most of the remains. 



HISTORICAL SUMMARY 

City founded . . . \ . 

Republic established 

The Twelve Tables of the Law adopted 

First definite mention of schools 

First recorded school 

Odyssey translated 

Corinth destroyed 

Cicero born . 

Vergil born 

Empire established 

Quintilian salaried by the Emperor Vespasian 







753 B.c 






509 B.c 






449 B.c 






305 B.c 






260 B.c 






233 B.c 






147 B.c 






106 B.c 






70 B.c 






31 B.c 


sian 




70-79 A. D 



PART III 

EARLY AND MEDIAEVAL CHRISTIAN 
EDUCATION 



VIII 
THE FOUNDER OF CHRISTIANITY 

While Tiberius Caesar was on the throne of the Roman 
Empire there went about in one of the most obscure 
and despised portions of it one who spoke of himself 
alternately as the " Son of God" and the " Son of man." 
It was Jesus of Nazareth. The life he led was extremely 
simple and lowly. He was absolutely de- jesusof 

void of what men term ambition. One of Nazareth, 
his characteristic utterances was, "I seek not mine own 
glory." To a man who asked to be accepted among 
his followers he said, "The foxes have holes, and the 
birds of the air have nests, but the Son of man hath not 
where to lay his head." As his special companions he 
chose twelve illiterate men, mostly fishermen from the 
sea of Galilee. 

Some trustingly received his message, but by the gen- 
erality of men he was despised and rejected, and he was 
finally condemned to death by the chief priests and 
rulers of his people. With a tender pathos begotten of 
his reverence and love for the Master, one of his disci- 
ples afterwards said, "The light shineth in the darkness, 
and the darkness comprehended it not." " He came 
unto his own and his own received him not." Yet by 
his life and death he gave to human life a meaning men 
had never before discovered in it ; to man as man, 
a value and dignity almost entirely unknown to Greek 

7 97 



98 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

philosophy and but faintly anticipated even by the great 
prophets of his own people. 

Jesus did not, like the Greek philosophers, seek a new 
unity for a small state and overlook the claims of its 
lowly and oppressed. He sought the unity of the race. 
He endeavored to establish it on the most ex- 
alted possible development of the individual. 
One of the striking commands to his disciples was, " Be 
ye therefore perfect, even as your Father which is in 
heaven is perfect." No words could envelop individu- 
ality with greater glory than the declaration of the dis- 
ciple John, " As many as received him, to them gave he 
power to become the sons of God," or his own state- 
ment, " The kingdom of God is within you." In a word, 
he sought to unify the race by so ennobling its indi- 
vidual members that they might recognize the will of 
God as by instinct and do it with the enthusiasm of a 
love for one another like his own. "This is my com- 
mandment," he said on the eve of his death, " that ye 
love one another as I have loved you." 

He met men and dealt with them entirely on the basis 
of their humanity. In his treatment of them he recog- 
nized no distinction as due to nationality, creed, caste, 
wealth, or learning. He taught the Samaritan woman 
with the same dignified thoughtfulness that he manifested 
Relation to ^^ ^^^ immediate disciples, and he spoke to 
Men. the sinful woman who came to him at the 

Pharisee's house with the same tender respect that he 
accorded those whose lives were beyond reproach. Pos- 
sibly the commonest taunt hissed at him was that he ate 
with publicans and sinners. He recognized no slavery 



THE FOUNDER OF CHRISTIANITY 99 

except slavery to unrighteousness, and his tenderest con- 
siderations and greatest sacrifices were for its subjects. 
The lowest of men he called his brethren, and commended 
anything done for them as special service to him. 

Prior to Jesus, children, generally speaking, were sub- 
ordinated to a narrow interpretation of the interests of 
parents or society. If these interests seemed to demand 
the subjection of the children even to slavery or to death, 
slavery or death was imposed with brutal sternness. 
Jesus revolutionized nothing more radically than this. 
No phase of the influence of his hfe is sweeter to con- 
template than the new meaning it gave to child life. The 
emancipation of children and the glorification Relation to 
of childhood began with the command, children. 
"Suffer little children and forbid them not, to come 
unto me : for of such is the kingdom of heaven." 
Wherever his spirit and word have taken hold of the 
thoughts and affections of men a peculiar sanctity has 
gathered about childhood, and parents and states have 
learned to make sacrifice for children. More than this, 
the blessing of the child brought a double blessing to the 
mother. In the progress of time it wrought the exal- 
tation of motherhood, the social uplift of woman. 

Whatever truths he formulated on these and other 
subjects took an exalted character and a peculiar depth 
of meaning from the power and dignity of his personality. 
Simple sayings current in the speech of his people 
were transformed, as they came from his lips, into reve- 
lations of new realms of thought, new vistas of hope 
and promise for the race. In his mind the facts of life 
were rearranged into new relations. What had been high 



100 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

in the thoughts of men he made low, and things low 
he exalted into matters of tremendous importance and 
significance. Of life and death as men were wont to 
speak of them he seldom or never spoke. 

In his thought life is activity in faith, righteousness, 
truth, and love, and the life of faith, righteousness, truth. 

Doctrine of ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^ powcr and essence of 
Eternal Life, eternity. "He that heareth my word," he 
declared, "and believeth on him that sent me, hath 
everlasting life." 

The life and doctrine of Jesus were destined to modify 
Summary of iu the course of time every phase of educa- 
Affectirir tioual activity, to revolutionize its aims, prin- 
Education. ciples, and methods. In his utterances were 
involved the following propositions affecting education : 



1. God is the father of all, and men are brethren. In this 
thought there is no room for those social distinctions, as of caste 
or slavery, which had previously been prominent determining fac- 
tors in educational schemes. 

2. The nations are but constituent elements in the comprehen- 
sive unit humanity, and guardians of their individual members. 

3. Individuality is of primary importance. Every man is the 
responsible steward of his personal endowments as the gifts of God, 
and is a possible heir of eternal life. 

4. The wife is the friend and companion of her husband. 

6. Children are the gifts of God, and are to be nurtured for 
him. 

6. Morality is loving recognition of the will of God, the eternal 
Father, and cheerful obedience to it. 

7. A man's personality has its supreme dignity and inviolability 
in that it is, in however limited a way, an expression of the per- 
sonality of God. 



THE FOUNDER OF CHRISTIANITY 101 

The public activity of Jesus consisted mainly in teach- 
ing. Rabbi, teacher, was the term by which he was 
commonly addressed. Measured by the The Pedagogy 
nature of the lessons he taught, by his °^ Jesus. 

method of presenting them, by the number of persons 
whom they have reached, and by the results they have 
accomplished, he was the greatest of all teachers. An 
analysis of his teaching as recorded in the gospels re- 
veals the following as its chief characteristics : 

1. He set before his disciples ideal perfection as the fundamental 
aim of life, and inspired them to seek it. The kingdom of God which 
he urged upon men was primarily an exalted conception of character. 
"Not every one," he declared, " that saith unto me, Lord, Lord, 
shall enter into the kingdom of heaven ; but he that doeth the will 
of my Father which is in heaven." "For I say unto you. That 
except your righteousness shall exceed the righteousness of the 
scribes and Pharisees, ye shall in no case enter into the kingdom 
of heaven." How exacting his ideal was may be inferred from 
the words, — " every idle word that men shall speak, they shall give 
account thereof in the day of judgment." 

2. He had supreme confidence in men and in the lessons he taught 
them. Though he asked men to believe in him as they believed in 
God, yet the faith he demanded of them is scarcely more astonish- 
ing than the faith he gave to them in return. In the most ignorant 
and degraded of men he found some traces of kinship to himself, 
the possibility of realizing his lofty ideals of life. In this he 
stands alone. First among the world's great teachers, he gave his 
attention most to the poor and the lowly, to the moral wrecks of 
society. Where others found only a hopeless mass of humanity 
doomed to a lower order of existence and unworthy of considera- 
tion, there he found the greatest challenge to hope, effort, and 
sacrificial love. The climax in the series of testimonials which he 
sent to John the Baptist was the declaration that ' ' the poor have 
the gospel preached to them." To publicans, the social pariahs 



102 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

of his day, and to sinners, he taught the noblest and most gracious 
truths that men have ever heard ; and finally he gave the supreme 
test of confidence in both men and truth by laying down his life 
for them. 

3. He taught vital ideas and principles of life, fundamental truths. 
In this Jesus is distinguished from the great social reformers 
w^ho preceded him. Their schemes, generally speaking, were 
static. They planned some form of social organization in which 
all the parts of the social fabric should be so adjusted to one another 
that regularity and order should prevail throughout, and the whole 
organism act as smoothly as properly adjusted and well-oiled ma- 
chinery. This is as true of the social ideals of Plato and Aristotle 
as it is of the scheme of Confucius. In startling contrast is the 
declaration of Jesus, " Think not that I am come to send peace on 
earth ; I came not to send peace, but a sword." This character- 
istic utterance, fraught with deep significance, has been actualized 
in centuries of history with inestimable benefit to the race. 

Discussions of forms of civil and religious government, cumber- 
some details of moral law, descriptions of civil and religious cere- 
monial, do not occur in the gospel narratives. Jesus did not seek 
to fossilize human life, but to spiritualize it. He did not seek to 
reform men or society mechanically from without, but to transform 
it from within by cultivating insight into truth and enthusiasm for 
righteous living. The very prayer he taught his disciples was not 
enjoined upon them as a formula to be committed to memory for 
repetition, but as a model for illustration. 

Men must not study the words of Jesus to learn the manner of 
conducting their daily life. They will not find it there ; but they 
may find depicted the salient features of the noblest possible type 
of human character, and answers to the profoundest and most 
necessary questions that have ever stirred the souls of men. For 
the words God, neighbor, man, child, life, death, suffering, peace, 
faith, love, Jesus has given the loftiest, the ultimate definitions. 

4. He was a master of the art of asking questions. There are 
three conditions to successful questioning, — well-defined purpose, 
mastery of the subject of inquiry, and knowledge of the mental 



THE FOUNDER OF CHRISTIANITY 103 

condition of the person questioned. In the field in which Jesus 
employed the art, he had perfect command of these. With match- 
less skill he caused new ideas to flash into the minds of his disci- 
ples, or exposed the hypocrisy of the emissaries sent to entrap 
him and baffled those who sent them. The learned scribes, disci- 
plined to the method by the questioning of their schools, were led 
by series of questions from one admission to another until they 
had unwittingly and to their confusion formulated most searching 
and scathing condemnation of themselves. 

5. His statements were majestic in their simplicity, and his illus- 
trations taken from the most familiar objects. Nothing gives more 
force to the words, " I seek not mine own glory," than his man- 
ner of teaching. That was the most natural and unassuming 
teaching ever done. Many of the sublimest truths he uttered were 
taught to humble individuals in places remote from the notice of 
men. The lessons were always adapted to the intelligence of his 
hearers and to their range of information. In his teaching, birds of 
the air and lilies of the field illusti-ate the unfailing providence of 
God ; the welcome home of the prodigal son, God's forgiving love ; 
the facts of Palestinian shepherd life, his own tender love for the 
people and his willingness to make sacrifice for them even to the 
laying down of his life. 

6. His lessons were given as occasion called for them ; and, there- 
fore, found the minds of the hearers in the attitude of expectant 
attention. With one or two notable exceptions, the utterances of 
Jesus do not seem to have been set discourses. That is a remark- 
able feature of his teaching. Many of the most important truths 
that ever came from his lips were proclaimed on what appear 
like chance occasions. 

When a Samaritan woman asked in surprise why he, a Jew, 
asked a drink of water of her, a Samaritan, he answered her 
question and aroused curiosity to know more of him by telling 
her that he had living water to give, ' ' a well springing up into 
everlasting life." Finally he responded to her eagerness to know 
by declaring to her, as apparently he had not yet to the public or 
to his disciples, that he was the Messiah. When his disciples 



104 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

quarrelled with respect to their positions in the kingdom which they 
expected him to establish, he taught them the new measure of 
greatness, service. To arouse their attention to the highest degree 
of intensity and ingrain the lesson into their lives, he performed for 
them the office of a menial, washing their feet. 

Probably the most striking of all is this. Plato had written a 
lengthy discourse on the immortality of the soul, while Jesus, who 
wrought such a conviction of immortality as to change the trend 
of history, never formally discussed it. When he mentioned it, 
however, it was under such circumstances that the words sank 
deep into the souls of his hearers to be retained in the fervor of an 
indestructible love. To Martha weeping at the death of her brother 
he said, " I am the resurrection and the life : he that believeth in 
me, though he were dead, yet shall he live." To his disciples 
sorrowful at the announcement of his approaching death, he said, 
"In my Father's house are many mansions. . . . I go to prepare 
a place for you." 

7. He was the embodiment of what he taught. One of his char- 
acteristic phrases was, "lam." He taught lessons of faith, and 
in faith he made absolute surrender of himself to God and hu- 
manity. He taught truth, and he lived it. He asked men to be 
righteous, and he was a new revelation of righteousness. Com- 
pared with the acts and precepts of his life, the old codes of law 
became brutal with iniquity. He commanded men to love, and he 
was love. The love that could treat the sin-stained woman of the 
street with dignity and compassion, that could transcend the hatred 
of the Jew for the Samaritan, that could hush the groans of the 
anguished with the tenderness of its touch and waken hope in the 
poor and the sinful, that in the hour of agony could forgive the 
crucifiers, was a love that passes understanding. 

These characteristics are fundamental principles of 
pedagogy, and of universal application. Every teacher 
to be a master in his profession must have high ideals of 
character, must have confidence in his wovk and his 



THE FOUNDER OF CHRISTIANITY 105 

pupils, must be able to subordinate everything to that 
which is fundamental and vital, must be skilful in ques- 
tioning, able to adapt instruction to the capacity of his 
pupils, ready to create and take advantage of expectant 
attention, and, above all, be saturated with that which 
he wishes to teach. 



IX 
EARLY CHRISTIAN EDUCATION 

It is very proper to call Jesus the Great Teacher, but 
it was a long way from him to a realization of the truths 
he taught in any considerable portion of humanity, and 
a much longer way to anything like a full realization of 
his spirit in educational activity. 

Early in the fourth century Christianity became the 
legal religion of the Roman Empire. Constantine placed 
the cross on his banner in 312. The interval between 
Early Status ^^^ humblc beginning in Jerusalem and this 
of Church. date was a period of heroic missionary effort 
and cruel persecutions. During this time the pagan 
school work in the empire was most highly oi^anized 
and most vigorous. Naturally, Christianity exercised no 
influence over it. Whatever secular education the pagan 
converts, with few exceptions, received, they received in 
the pagan schools. 

It is well to bear in mind, however, that every con- 
gregation was, in a very true and important sense, a 
school. The members met not only for wor- 

The 

Congregations ship, but also to reccive instruction in the 
as Schools. |.^^|.g ^^^ principles of their religion. As 
schools of instruction, the congregation at first closely 
resembled the Jewish synagogue and Bible school. Later, 
especially in the East, it resembled more closely the 
Greek philosophical school. The great moral victory 

106 



EARLY CHRISTIAN EDUCATION 107 

of Christianity in the Roman Empire attests the efficacy 
of the teaching. 

Early in the history of the church, the candidates for 
baptism, whether pagan converts or children of Christian 
parents, formed a distinct body. When ^^^ 

churches were erected a special part thereof catechumens. 
was assigned to them, and they were dismissed before 
the celebration of the eucharist. They received special 
instruction to prepare them for admission to church 
membership. This was known as catechetical instruc- 
tion, from the method of teaching, and the people who 
received it were called catechumens. The terms are 
still in use. 

In many of the churches a special officer, known as 
catechist, was appointed to give this instruction. Thus 
the catechetical schools arose. The first 

The 

catechist of whom there is definite record catechetical 
was Pantaenus, who taught in Alexandria as school. 

early as 181, making the school at Alexandria the first 
known catechetical school. 

When there were churches, the instruction was given 
either in the church itself or in a school building erected 
for the purpose. The catechumens studied the com- 
mandments, the Lord's prayer, other portions of Scrip- 
ture, and a confession of faith, or creed. 

The best of the catechetical schools were located at 
the episcopal seats. Here the instruction was often ex- 
tended to prepare young men for the ministry r^j^g cathedral 
of the church. Late in the fourth century schools. 

the trivium was sometimes introduced, and then the 
Christian teacher took the place of the old grammaticus. 



108 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

This was the beginning of the schools that in the Middle 
Ages became known as episcopal, or cathedral schools. 

The most famous of all the catechetical schools was 
the one at Alexandria. It had illustrious teachers, and 
developed into a high-grade theological seminary. Be- 
sides the theological study, there was instruction in 
philology, rhetoric, philosophy, and mathematics. No 
salaries were paid the teachers, but rich catechumens 
frequently gave them gifts. The development of this 
school was due to its proximity to the University of 
Alexandria. 



X 

MONASTIC EDUCATION 

(5th- 1 2th Century) 

From the fifth to the twelfth century the monastery 
was the predominant factor in the education of Western 
Europe. The twelfth century saw the beginning of an 
institution, the modern university, which soon took from 
the monastic school its supremacy. Before considering 
the education of the period it is well to review the state 
of society which conditioned it. 

In 410, Alaric the Goth sacked Rome. This event 
was followed by those movements and conquests of dif- 
ferent Germanic tribes within the limits of the Western 
Empire which so broke it into fragments and Historical 
changed the character of the parts as to form Review. 

the beginnmgs of the modern nations of nearly all Wes- 
tern Europe. The last waves of these barbarian move- 
ments were the incursions of the Norsemen. These did 
not finally cease until well on into the eleventh century. 

Out of these Germanic conquests grew the feudal sys- 
tem. It prevailed from the tenth to the end of the thir- 
teenth century. To this period and to the system belong 
the Crusades. They began in 1095 and ended shortly 
before the thirteenth century closed. 

A by no means insignificant episode of this monastic 
period was the invasion of Europe by the Saracens. In 

109 



110 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

the eighth century they crossed from the north of Africa 
and settled in Spain. 

Monasticism is founded more or less definitely on the 

belief that retirement, contemplation, prayer, and ascetic 

discipline are necessary to the attainment of ideal life, 

especially of ideal spiritual life. It has manifested itself 

at different times, among different races, and 

Nature and ' ° ' 

Origin of in different forms of religion and philosophy. 

Monasticism. j^ j^ ^j^^^ ^^^^ Christianity. There were 

ascetic communities among the Hebrews, and we have 
seen that there was an anticipation of mediseval monas- 
ticism in the school of Pythagoras at Crotona. Both 
seem to have exercised some influence upon the early 
Christians ; Pythagorean asceticism through the Neo- 
Platonists, who had in some measure adopted it, and 
who furnished converts to the new religion. 

Monasticism early took a deep hold on Christendom. 
There were two primary causes of this. One was the 
expectation of Christ. The early Christians believed 
that he would soon reappear to gather the citizens of 
the celestial kingdom. The belief did not begin to fade 
from the minds of men till the tenth century. The 
other cause was the cruel oppression of the Roman 
Empire and the coarseness, sensuality, and brutality that 
prevailed in it. Both led Christians to lose the hope of 
this world, to undervalue its affairs and achievements, 
and to seek refuge from it in contemplation of the next 
world and in preparation for it. 

This monastic spirit was intensified and the number of 
monks increased by the terrible persecutions of the Roman 
emperors. At a later period, the invasions of the Ger- 



MONASTIC EDUCATION 111 

man barbarians and the disturbed state of feudal society 
had a similar effect. 

The first Christian ascetics were monks in the true 
sense of the word, people who dwell alone, hermits. 
Paul, a native of the lower Thebaid in Egypt, was the 
first. He fled into the desert to escape the persecution 
of Decius in the middle of the third century. He de- 
voted himself to a solitary religious life. He 
seems to have had many imitators. The 
most influential of these was Anthony. He was moved 
to take up the ascetic life by hearing read the gospel, 
" Go and sell that thou hast, and give to the poor . . . and 
come and follow me." The desert was soon filled with 
the huts of religious hermits. 

In 320, Pachomius organized the first monastic com- 
munity on Tabennae, an island in the Nile. This is the 
form of monasticism that ultimately prevailed. The 
monks of Pachomius lived on bread and water, with oil, 
salt, fruits, and vegetables as occasional luxuries. Twice 
a day they met for prayer, and for communion on Satur- 
day and Sunday. They tilled the soil and wove mats 
and baskets. Other handicrafts were added later. 

Near the middle of the fourth century monasticism 
was brought to Italy. It rapidly spread over Italy, Gaul, 
Spain, and Britain. 

The special interest of the student of education in the 
monasticism of the West begins with the work of John 
Cassian. He had been a monk in Bethlehem 
and had spent much time among the monks 
in Egypt. He returned to his native land and founded a 
monastery at Marseilles in 404, and aided in the founding 



112 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

of another. These monasteries began a departure in 
European history, they became schools as well as re- 
ligious retreats. The pagan schools of the Empire were 
dead or dying, and a new power undertook the work 
which they laid down : the grammaticus and the philoso- 
pher gave place to the Christian monk. 

Cassian was the pioneer, but the man who, above all 
others, deserves the credit for organizing the monastic 
school work of the Middle Ages was St. Benedict, the 
The founder of the order of the Benedictines, 

and cohimban ^^ established a monastery at Monte Cas- 
Monks. sino, near Naples, in 528. The rule of Bene- 

dict included three things, — work, prayer, and teaching. 

The rivals of the Benedictines in activity were the 
monks from the Irish monastery of Columba on the 
island of lona, on the west coast of Scotland. The rule 
of Columba was very much like that of Benedict. 

When the West was rent and torn and trampled over 
by the fierce northern invaders and the soil was drenched 
with the blood of ruthless and terrible battles, the 
monks, especially the followers of Benedict and Columba, 
were the pioneers of the new civilization of Europe. 
Steadily and patiently they established monasteries, and 
by precept and example taught the rough warriors who 
had destroyed the great empire to labor, to pray, and to 
study. 

Their monasteries became asylums for the oppressed, 
fortresses against violence, missionary stations for the 
conversion of the heathen, repositories of learning. 

The earlier monastic buildings have all disappeared, 
but there is left to us the plan of the Benedictine monas- 



MONASTIC EDUCATION 113 

tery of St. Gall in Switzerland, erected about 820. This 
monastery is interesting because it marks the eastern 
limit of the missionary activity of the Irish monks. It 
is profitable to study the plan of it because of the light 
it throws upon the nature and services of the institution. 
The plan presents a great group of buildings. The 
nucleus of all is the large church. On one side of the 
eastern end is the scriptorium, or writing- 

The Monastery. 

room, with the library over it. Attached to 
the church on the south side are the covered courts of 
the cloister, where the monks could take exercise shut 
off from the outer world. Connected with the cloister 
on the east side and attached to the transept of the 
church is the common sitting-room of the monks with 
the dormitory over it. The dining-room and kitchen 
are attached to the south side of the cloister. 

To the east of the church is another convent building. 
It contains the cloister, chapel, dining-room, dormitory, 
and school-room for the novices, called oblati. To the 
north of the church is the school for the externs, externi, 
pupils who do not intend to devote themselves to the 
monastic life. 

There are rooms for strange monks and other visi- 
tors, an infirmary, a dwelling-place for the abbot, and 
one for the head-master of the outer school. To the 
south of all are w^orkshops for shoemakers, saddlers, 
cutlers, tanners, smiths, and other artisans. There are 
separate quarters for servants. There are also a granary, 
threshing-floor, mill, ox-sheds, sheepfolds, stables, a 
piggery, duck-houses, and a poultry-yard. To the east 
of this group is a large kitchen-garden. Besides the 

8 



114 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

garden an extensive farm belonged to the establishment. 
This was a rich monastery. 

In considering the courses of study in the monastic 
schools, the student must remember that the modern 
languages of Europe then existed only in crude popular 
dialects. These dialects were spoken side by side with 
numberless others. For the scholar there was but one 
language, the Latin, the language of the old Empire, 
which the church now in a sense replaced. 

The first subject studied was the alphabet. The letters 
were written on tables. The pupils learned their names 
Primary ^Y heart, and to recognize the letters them- 

instruction. selvcs wheu pointed out. They were pre- 
pared to read by spelling, syllables and simple words at 
first. 

The Latin psalter generally was the reading book. It 
was read and reread until the pupils knew it by heart. 
Many a boy could recite his psalter without ever know- 
ing a line of its meaning. 

The pupils also learned to write. They imitated 
copies with a stylus on wax tablets. Later, they learned 
to write on parchment with quill and ink. 

They were taught to sing the service of the church. 
A little elementary work in arithmetic was done. 

After the psalter w^as learned, the pupils began to com- 
mit declensions, conjugations, and lists of words. As 
early, at least, as the eleventh century pupils learned 
Latin conversation books by heart. 

What is said of secondary and higher education must 
be accepted in a very general way. The courses of 
study varied much in different monasteries, and even 



MONASTIC EDUCATION 115 

in the same monastery at different times. Sometimes 
during long periods the educational spirit was low in 
one monastery, while another developed an secondary 
enthusiasm that made it a centre of learn- instruction, 
ing far in advance of others both in extent of course 
and in character of work done. 

The secondary course was the trivium, — grammar, dia- 
lectic, or logic, and rhetoric. This was a legacy, as was 
also the higher course, from the old Roman schools. It 
was, however, considerably impoverished, largely be- 
cause the old literary spirit was lacking. 

The principal study was grammar. Donatus and 
Priscian were the authorities. The matter was presented 
in the form of question and answer. The reading was 
connected with the study of grammar, and was mainly 
subordinated to grammatical purposes, though morals 
also were not lost sight of. ^Esop's fables, maxims, and 
proverbs were copied and committed to memory. Vergil 
was read, and some Christian poets. 

The attention given to rhetoric was rather slight. 
Cicero and Quintilian were studied. Cicero's Rhetorica 
ad Herennium was most studied. 

In the Irish monasteries, where, as a rule, the scholar- 
ship seems to have been broadest, Greek was also studied, 
especially in the eighth and ninth centuries. 

The higher course was the quadrivium, — arithmetic, 
geometry, astronomy, and music. It was much less 
Higher popular than the trivium. Generally, dia- 

instruction. lectics was Continued in this course. 

In astronomy, the names and courses of the stars and 
constellations were studied. The relation of astronomy 



116 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

to the fixing of religious festivals gave importance to 
the study. The Institutio Arithmetica and the De Mu- 
sica of Boethius w^ere the texts on arithmetic and music. 
Geometry frequently had added to it geography and 
natural history. Till the tw^elfth century the study in- 
cluded four books of Euclid. 

Generally text-books were lacking. In such case the 
teacher dictated the lessons. The pupils took them 
down on wax tablets and committed them to memory. 
In advanced work the lessons were often copied on 
parchment. 

As already indicated, there were two classes of pupils : 

those who intended to devote themselves to the monastic 

life, oblati, and those who sought only educa- 

The Pupils. 

tional advantages, externi. The oblati were 
maintained free. The externs received their tuition free, 
but paid for their maintenance. In cases of poverty 
they were maintained free, if the monastery could afford 
it. For the purpose, gifts were encouraged. 

The convents offered precious advantages for women 

in the Middle Ages. When Benedict founded his order, 

his sister, known in ecclesiastical history as 

Female 

Education iu Sistcr Scholastica, established a correspond- 
convents. j^^ institution for women. The Irish and 
English monks also established female convents that 
were active in female education. English nuns opened 
the first schools for girls in Germany. The courses of 
study in the female convents were not very exten- 
sive. 

Occasionally the courses of study in the monasteries 
were considerably fuller than those described; but, 



MONASTIC EDUCATION 117 

generally speaking, to the student of to-day they seem 
to have been meagre enough. The principal causes of 
this deserve special mention. They were two. 

The first great triumph of Christianity w^as its moral 
conquest of the Roman Empire. It was the issue of a 
stern conflict with the most extensive and glaring mass 
of corruption, sensuality, vice, and crime the world per- 
haps has ever known, and with almost unlimited and 
irresponsible imperial authority most cruelly and brutally 
exercised. When paganism went down before the cross, 
its literature, art, and philosophy went down pjj.^^ (^^^g^ ^^ 
with it. In the minds of the victors they Meagreness. 
were too intimately associated with it to permit any but 
the most carefully sifted portions to survive. In 398 
the council of Carthage prohibited the reading of secu- 
lar books even by the bishops. When the persecutions 
and the sins from which the early Christians escaped are 
considered, it is not surprising that, following a natural 
law of the mind, they regarded the gods of their former 
worship as evil spirits responsible for both. The impure 
escapades of the gods and the goddesses so prominent 
in the tales of the poets confirmed them in their con- 
viction. 

The second cause is to be sought in the character and 
condition of the people among whom the monks labored. 
Their pupils were mostly the children and The second 
later descendants of the warriors who so cause. 

radically changed the map and the life of Europe. 
Among them the demand for broad literary culture could 
not have been very great. Taine, in his history of Eng- 
lish literature, illustrates the fierce and untamed spirit 



118 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

of these people by quoting a love scene from an old 
Norse poem. 

The daughter of the Danish Jarl, seeing Egil taking his 
seat near her, repels him with scorn : " Seldom have 
you provided the wolves with hot meat, never during the 
whole autumn have you seen a raven croaking over the 
carnage." 

Egil pacified her : " I have marched with my bloody 
sword, and the raven has followed me. Furiously we 
fought, the fire passed over the dwellings of men ; we 
have sent to sleep in blood those who kept the gates." 

Think of the people whose love-making was so deli- 
cate as that bending patiently over the tasks of the 
school-room ! 

Whether they taught much or little, whether they 

taught it well or ill, the most important mission of the 

monks of that olden time lay not in the 

True 0fi5ce of 

Mediffivai teaching of Latin or logic ; it was a moral one. 
Monks. They taught the rude warriors from the 

northern forests to adopt the manners of a more quiet 
and civilized life. With what magnificent spirit at least 
some of them entered upon their work nothing more 
beautifully tells than the story of Baeda, the Venerable 
Bede, who died in 755. 

He spent his whole life at the monastery of Jarrow in 
the north of England. " While attentive to the rule of 
my order and the service of the church," he said in his 
account of his life, " my constant pleasure lay in learn- 
ing, or teaching, or writing." He mastered the whole 
range of the learning of his time. He knew Greek and 
had a wide command of Latin literature. He wrote 



MONASTIC EDUCATION 119 

forty-five books. He prepared text-books covering all 
that was then known of astronomy, meteorology, physics, 
music, philosophy, grammar, rhetoric, arithmetic, and 
medicine. He was the first English historian. 

"Two weeks before Easter, 755, the old man was 
seized with extreme weakness and loss of breath," 
Greene tells us in his incomparable history of the Eng- 
lish people. " He still preserved, however, his usual 
pleasantness and gay good-humor, and in spite of pro- 
longed sleeplessness continued his lectures to the pupils 
about him. Verses of his own English tongue broke 
from time to time from the master's lips, — rude rhymes 
that told how before the ' needfare,' Death's stern ' must 
go,' none can enough bethink him what is to be his 
doom for good or ill. The tears of Baeda's scholars 
mingled with his song. ' We never read without weep- 
ing,' writes one of them. So the days rolled on to As- 
cension-tide, and still master and pupils toiled at their 
work, for Baeda longed to bring to an end his version 
of St. John's gospel into the English tongue, and his ex- 
tracts from Bishop Isidore, ' I don't want my boys to 
read a lie,' he answered those who would have had him 
rest, ' or to work to no purpose after I am gone.' 

"A few days before Ascension-tide his sickness grew 
upon him, but he spent the whole day in teaching, only 
saying cheerfully to his scholars, ' Learn with what speed 
you may ; I know not how long I may last.' The dawn 
broke on another sleepless night, and again the old man 
called his scholars round him and bade them write. 
' There is still a chapter wanting,' said the scribe, as the 
morning drew on, 'and it is hard for thee to question 



120 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

thyself any longer.' ' It is easily done,' said Baeda ; 
'take thy pen and write quickly,' Amid tears and fare- 
wells the day wore on to even-tide. ' There is yet one 
sentence unwritten, dear master,' said the boy. 'Write 
it quickly,' bade the dying man. 'It is finished now,' 
said the little scribe at last. ' You speak truth,' said the 
master ; ' all is finished now.' Placed upon the pave- 
ment, his head supported in his scholar's arms, his face 
turned to the spot where he was wont to pray, Baeda 
chanted the solemn ' Glory to God.' As his voice reached 
the close of his song, he passed quietly away." 

Contemporaneously with the growth of the monastic 
schools there was a multiplication of episcopal schools. 
Though they were designed to prepare young 
Cathedral, men for the priesthood, other students were 
Schools. g^igQ admitted. In the course of time the 

secular course was made to embrace the seven liberal 
arts, the trivium and quadrivium. Theology received 
more attention than in the monastic schools. Sometimes 
monks were placed at the head of these schools. 

Through the influence of Chrodegang, Bishop of Metz, 
the cathedral schools received a peculiar organization 
in the eighth century. The priests connected with the 
cathedral churches were organized into something like 
monastic brotherhoods. A part of their duty was to 
conduct the schools connected with the cathedrals. 

The Middle Ages also saw the beginning of the mod- 
parochiai ^^^ parocliial school, a continuation of the 
Schools. catechetical school of the early church. It 

was under the supervision of the parish priest. The pri- 
mary object naturally was instruction in the elements 



MONASTIC EDUCATION 121 

of religion. To the religious instruction were some- 
times added reading and writing, and the pupils were 
taught to sing the music of the church. 

In all these schools, monastic, parochial, and cathe- 
dral, the discipline was severe. There was a quite com- 
mon belief that the devil was in the hearts of the boys 
and could be driven out with flagellations. school 

In many monasteries the boys were flogged Discipline, 
periodically. As late as the fourteenth century a school- 
master was sometimes introduced to his office by pre- 
senting him with a ferule and a rod, and by requiring 
him to flog a boy publicly, to prove, no doubt, that he 
was equal to the high demands of his office. 



XI 

LATER DEVELOPMENT OF MONASTIC 
TYPE OF EDUCATION 

The title great was never more appropriately applied 
to any man than it was to Charles, the son of Pepin, 
King of the Franks. He was a giant in body, and 
equally gigantic intellectually and morally. When Pope 
Leo III. placed the crown on his head on Christmas-day, 
800, it did look as if there was good ground 
for the belief that the corpse of the Western 
Roman Empire might be brought back to life again. 
Nothing indicates more plainly the colossal proportions 
of Charles than the rapidity with which the empire to 
which he had given such a high degree of solidity and 
strength went to pieces in the hands of his weaker suc- 
cessors, and the persistency with which many of the 
good results of his efforts continued to manifest them- 
selves in the fragments. 

With the same intelligence and energy with which he 
added countries and tribes to the heritage of his father 
and suppressed the wild and numerous uprisings of the 
conquered Saxons, Charlemagne devoted himself to the 
work of organizing and civilizing his vast dominion. It 

Plans for his ^^^^ ^^^^ ^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^ infant. His empire 
Empire. ^as a wouderfully heterogeneous mass. 

Fairly civilized Christian communities formed one ex- 
treme, and fierce pagan tribes the other. Besides care- 

122 



LATER DEVELOPMENT OF MONASTIC EDUCATION 123 

fully planning for it an excellent form of civil organiza- 
tion, Charlemagne sought to give it unity by means of the 
Christian religion. The compulsory baptism of van- 
quished pagans in groups of thousands make his efforts 
at Christianizing his people appear mechanical and ridic- 
ulous, but there was nothing mechanical in his ultimate 
plans. His design was to make the offices of religion 
effective through an educated clergy, and, so far as pos- 
sible, through an educated laity. 

One of the notable things in the history of mediaeval 
education is the document in which Charles urges reform 
of the schools, 787. " Be it known to your devotion," 
the paper reads, " pleasing to God, that in conjunction 
with our faithful we have judged it to be of 

Instructions 

utility that, in the bishoprics and monas- for school 
teries committed by Christ's favor to our Reforms. 

charge, care should be taken that there shall be not only 
a regular manner of life and one conformable to holy 
religion, but also the study of letters, each to teach and 
learn them according to his ability and the divine assist- 
ance. ... If false speaking is to be shunned by all men, 
especially should it be shunned by those who have 
elected to be servants of the truth. During past years 
we have often received letters from different monasteries, 
informing us that at their sacred services the brethren 
offered up prayers on our behalf ; and we have observed 
that the thoughts contained in these letters, though in 
themselves most just, were expressed in uncouth lan- 
guage. . . . Hence there has arisen in our minds the fear 
lest, if the skill to write rightly were thus lacking, so, 
too, would the power of rightly comprehending the 



124 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

sacred Scriptures be far less than was fitting. . . . We ex- 
hort you, therefore, not only not to neglect the study of 
letters, but to apply yourselves thereto with perseverance. 
, . . Let there, therefore, be chosen for this work men who 
are both able and willing to learn and also desirous of 
instructing others ; and let them apply themselves to the 
work with a zeal equalling the earnestness with which 
we recommend it to them." 

To give a new impetus to education Charlemagne im- 
ported teachers of singing, arithmetic, and grammar from 
Rome to visit the monasteries and help revive the teach- 
ing there. He invited learned men from different parts 
of Europe to his court. The most famous 

His ^ 

Educational of thcsc was Alcuiu, of England, the best- 
Efforts, known scholar of his day. Alcuin was a 
sort of superintendent of instruction. For a time he 
had charge of the Palace school, founded at the court 
to serve as a model school. It was attended by the 
children of the nobles. Charlemagne had in it four sons 
and two daughters, and sometimes he was a pupil in it 
himself. For he was a student. With much pains he 
mastered the Latin tongue, and he also understood 
Greek. One of the pleasing pictures of the time is that 
of Charles at an advanced age trying eagerly and pa- 
tiently to write neatly on parchment with the great hand 
with which he had wielded his ponderous sword in many 
a battle. 

He was very much displeased with the indolence and 
indifference which he observed among some of the scions 
of noble families. He rebuked them severely for it, 
and declared that they should have neither government 



LATER DEVELOPMENT OF MONASTIC EDUCATION 125 

appointments nor bishoprics unless they were better 
educated than others. 

He appointed Theodulph bishop of Orleans. Theo- 
dulph was in warm sympathy with his plans. He 
founded a number of important schools. He ordered 
the clei^y of his diocese to institute parish schools in 
which the faithful might receive elementary instruction 
free of cost. 

Soon after the death of Charles his empire com- 
menced to disintegrate, but the good results of his efforts 
did not entirely perish. He had put new life into many 
of the monastic and episcopal schools, had in many 
places advanced the character of parochial instruction, 
and the Palace school survived. 

About fifty years after the death of Charlemagne the 
English King Alfred undertook educational work similar 
to his. He tried to put energy into existing Alfred the 
schools, and established a court school for Great. 

his own children and the sons of the nobles. He him- 
self supervised it. In order to extend the benefits of 
education as widely as possible among his people, he 
personally translated into the English tongue Baeda's 
history of the English people, the Consolations of Boethius, 
and other works well thought of in his day. 

While learning was thus making advancement in the 
West and giving vigorous promise for the future, affairs 
were quite different in the Eastern, or Byzan- 

^ ^ ' / Decline of Old 

tme. Empire. There were signs of decay in- institutions in 
stead of growth, evidences of decline instead *^® ^^^' 
of progress. In the fifth century the University of Alex- 
andria began to dwindle away, and it ceased to exist 



126 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

in the seventh. The Christian emperors at first gave 
encouragement to the schools of rhetoric and philosophy 
which still made Athens a university city, but these 
schools, too, eventually began to fail, and were closed 
by imperial decree in 529. 

Monasteries and monastic schools, however, multiplied. 
In the fourth century Basil the Great, bishop of Caesarea, 
jjg^y framed a monastic rule that absorbed all 

Institutions, others in the East, and continues to be the 
code of the Greek church. Though devotion to learning 
is not so pronounced in it as it is in St. Benedict's, yet, 
in some measure, Basil did for the East what Benedict 
did for the West. In fact, it is likely that the teaching 
of the Eastern monks suggested school work to the 
Western. 

There was a university, too, that flourished in the 
decay of the older schools of higher learning. In the 
latter part of the fourth century the emperors established 
a Christian university in Constantinople. It prospered a 
long time, and, after a period of decay, it was refounded 
in the ninth century. It then still maintained chairs in 
Greek literature, geometry, and astronomy. It had an- 
other period of special activity in the eleventh century, 
and was particularly famous at that time for its work in 
logic. 

After Charlemagne, the interest in the ecclesiastical 
schools of the West centres in the labors of the scho- 
work of the lastics, or schoolmen. The name scholastic 
Schoolmen. jg derived from the title given to an author- 
ized teacher in a monastic or an episcopal school, doctor 
scholasticus, but it is now generally applied to any one of 



LATER DEVELOPMENT OF MONASTIC EDUCATION 127 

those teachers who represented the philosophical activity 
of the Middle Ages. 

The schoolmen sought to bring Greek philosophy, par- 
ticularly that of Aristotle, into the service of theology. 
They endeavored to find philosophic solutions for the 
great problems of theology, and give philosophic form 
and validity to its propositions. 

The central question of scholastic philosophy was the 
nature of universal or abstract ideas, — the relation of the 
universal to the individual. The schoolmen, naturally, 
were either realists — adherents to some form of the doc- 
trine that universals have real, objective existence — or 
nominalists, — upholders of the doctrine that the name 
only is universal, being applied universally because of 
similar attributes found in individuals. On the basis 
of these theories they sought to explain the doctrines of 
the trinity, the incarnation, transubstantiation, predes- 
tination, and the like. 

It was through the schoolmen mainly that Charle- 
magne exerted an influence on the education of after- 
times. They continued the tradition of History of 
learning established by his Palace school, scholasticism. 
Scholasticism is generally assumed to have begun in the 
ninth century with John Scotus Erigena, head of the 
Palace school of Charles the Bald, grandson of Charle- 
magne. Unlike the later schoolmen, he was in philoso- 
phy a Neo-Platonist rather than an Aristotelian. Scho- 
lastic activity, however, was greatest from the end of 
the eleventh to the beginning of the fourteenth century. 
It reached its high tide in the great work of the Do- 
minican Thomas Aquinas and of his powerful rival the 



128 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Franciscan Duns Scotus. Aquinas gave such profound 
and systematic formulation to tlie doctrines of the church 
that he was sainted and assigned a festival day as promi- 
nent as that of the greatest church fathers. 

The later scholastics had the advantage of the more 
complete knowledge of the works of Aristotle obtained 
through the Saracen scholars. 

The boldest and most famous of the scholastic teachers 
of the twelfth century was Abelard, who taught princi- 
pally in Paris. Much of the interest in his 
life centres in the romantic and pathetic story 
of his relation to Heloise ; but his work deserves more 
than passing mention because of its brilliancy and be- 
cause it was the basis of that intellectual activity in 
which originated the University of Paris. 

From boyhood he was a keen and untiring student. 
Though he had the ablest teachers of his day, he over- 
whelmed them in argument. The greatest of them sur- 
rendered his philosophical position to the logic of his 
pupil. He had a handsome and magnetic presence, and 
he presented his doctrines with such boldness and elo- 
quence that thousands of students flocked to him from 
all over Europe. The great sorrow of his life and the 
condemnation of some of his doctrines by the church 
authorities once compelled him to seek refuge in the life 
of a hermit in a desert place. Nothing tells us more 
plainly the influence and popularity of the man than the 
fact that numbers of students sought him in his solitude 
and dwelt about him in huts and tents. 

Many of the writings of the schoolmen furnish reading 
that is dreary enough, and much of their argument now 



LATER DEVELOPMENT OF MONASTIC EDUCATION 129 

sounds like useless and meaningless hair-splitting; but 
it is an easy matter to under-estimate them and their 
achievements. Some were brainy men, services of 
thoroughly sincere, and they performed val- schoolmen. 
iant service. They kept alive the tradition of learning 
and philosophic activity ; and, whether they always in- 
tended it or not, they championed and maintained the 
rights and dignity of the human reason. Their method 
itself did that, but some went further. "Authority is 
derived from reason," said Erigena, the first of them, 
" and not reason from authority ; and when the former 
is not confirmed by the latter it possesses no value." 
Abelard boldly assumed the same proposition. 

The schoolmen found theology a confused mass of 
traditional doctrine, and they made it a systematic 
science, the first great science developed by modern 
Europeans. 



XII 
NEW EDUCATIONAL FORCES 

MoNASTicisM meant renunciation of the world. As we 
have seen, monasticism gave the dominant tone to the 
intellectual and moral activity of the Middle Ages. In 
the latter half of the period three new educational 
factors, very different in character, exerted influence side 
by side with the cathedral and monastic schools, and 
contributed something to the origin of the mediaeval 
universities. These were the Mohammedan learning, 
chivalry, and the commercial cities with their schools, 
the burgher schools. 

When, early in the eighth century, the Saracens over- 
whelmed Spain and swarmed across the Pyrenees into 
TheMoham- France, western Christendom trembled with 
medans. fear. There was danger that it might lose 

its very existence. Nothing but disaster seemed to come 
with the invaders until the great battle of Tours turned 
them back into Spain ; but it is a question whether the 
benefits they eventually brought to Europe were not 
greater than the evils which they inflicted. Scarcely 
were the Saracens settled in their extensive conquests 
when they developed a remarkable intellectual activity. 
Their conquests brought them to the feet of the masters 
of Greek thought and in contact with the learning of 
India. They endeavored to follow the best efforts that 
the Greek mind made when the Greek mind was at its 

130 



NEW EDUCATIONAL FORCES 131 

best. They translated the works of Aristotle, and used 
his logic and philosophy in defence of their religious 
tenets. It was through them that the Christian scholas- 
tics finally completed their command of all that was left 
of the writings of their master of thought. 

Stimulated by their knowledge of Greek, they wrought 
out grammars and lexicographies of their language, and 
gave considerable attention to rhetoric and literary criti- 
cism. They developed, also, a complete system of laws 
based on the Koran. 

It was not, however, through their interest in litera- 
ture and philosophy that the Saracens became most 
helpful to the Christians of the West. The scientific 
activity of modern Europe commenced in scientific 
their schools and laboratories. Their schol- Activity. 

ars translated the works of Euclid as well as those of 
Aristotle. They got hold of all the Greeks and Hindus 
had known of algebra and remodelled it into its modern 
form. They also founded a new trigonometry on a Greek 
basis. Perhaps best of all, they learned the Hindu arith- 
metical notation and gave it to the West. 

Their scientific achievements, however, did not stop 
here. They repeated the feat of the Alexandrian geog- 
raphers in the measurement of a degree on a meridian, 
and they thus determined the size of the earth. They 
applied the pendulum to the measurement of time, and 
they catalogued the stars. In their laboratories they tried 
to find a means of changing all metals into gold, produce 
an elixir that should indefinitely prolong youthful and 
vigorous life, and discover the real nature and relation 
of things. In their efforts they discovered alcohol, and 



132 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

nitric and sulphuric acids. This scientific and philo- 
sophic effori: is called alchemy, and it was the beginning 
of modern chemistry. 

This intellectual enthusiasm led to the founding and 
liberal endowment of many schools in Asia, Africa, and 
Europe. The most famous of the European 
Mohammedan schools wcre at Cordova, Grenada, and Se- 
^ °°^" ville. Christian students resorted to these 

schools in lai^e numbers and were warmly welcomed. 
When they returned, they carried back with them to the 
different parts of Europe prolific seeds of a new intel- 
lectual life. 

Besides these higher schools there were elementary 
schools for both boys and girls. The main subject of 
study in these schools was, and, in all Mohammedan 
countries, continues to be, the Koran. Reading and 
writing were taught. The Koran was the reading book. 

In the eleventh century the Saracen schools began to 
decline, and there has been no great revival of learning 
in a Mohammedan country since. Study has narrowed 
closely to the Koran and such knowledge as is most 
intimately associated with it. 

In more direct contrast with monastic learning was 

the training of chivalry. The knight was the successor 

of the Germanic warrior chieftain. Chivalry, on its 

moral side, embodied the better elements of 

Chivalry. 

the old warrior character refined and en- 
nobled by the influence of Christianity. It became a 
well-defined and established institution in the eleventh 
century. 

The monastic ideal was evidently one-sided, incom- 



NEW EDUCATIONAL FORCES 133 

plete. The monk not merely neglected to cultivate the 
body, he learned to fear it and scorn it. He regarded it 
as a clog upon the soul, a source of temptation and cor- 
ruption. He glorified the soul. He endeavored with 
the trivium and quadrivium to give such culture to the 
mind as w^ould aid the soul in its search for perfection. 
The knight, on the contrary, glorified the body. On 
many a field of battle he had learned to appreciate the 
value of physical strength and vigor, and he devised 
courses of training to make the body strong and fit it for 
the pursuits of war and the chase. 

There were two periods of training for knighthood, 
that of the page and that of the esquire. The training 
of the sons of the lesser nobles was received in the ser- 
vice of the greater nobles and princes. 

At the age of seven or eight the sons of the nobles 
took up their residence at the castles of their feudal 
superiors. They served there as pages seven 

^ "' 1 The Page. 

or eight years. They were the personal 
attendants of the master and mistress, especially of the 
mistress. They waited upon both at table and accom- 
panied them upon the chase, sometimes also following 
the lord to the camp. They were instructed by the lady 
of the castle in matters of courtesy, love, and honor. 
They learned to play musical instruments and sing, and 
to play chess and other games. From the chaplain 
they received religious instruction. At the same time 
they were disciplined in lighter military gymnastics, such 
as casting the spear, carrying the shield, and marching. 
The lord also gave them their first lessons in hawking 
and hunting. 



134 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

As esquires, the boys still served both lord and lady, 
but the attendance was more especially devoted to the 
master. They learned to ride, to tilt, to wield 
the lance, the sword, and the battle-axe. 
They accompanied the lord regularly on the chase and 
in the camp. They carried his shield and his lance. 
They equipped him in his armor for tourney and for 
battle. They helped him on his horse and fought by his 
side. They went to his rescue when hard pressed in 
battle, protected him when unhorsed, and bore him from 
the field when wounded. During this period, too, the 
esquire was supposed to choose his lady-love, for whom 
he should win fame and glory. 

At the age of twenty-one, if he had proved himself 
worthy, the esquire might assume the vows of knight- 
hood. This was done with solemn ceremony. 
Generally it was preceded by a week of fast- 
ing. After a bath in the evening the candidate was con- 
ducted to the church, where he spent the night in vigil 
and prayer. In the morning he made confession and 
received the eucharist. He offered his sword upon the 
altar as a sign of his devotion to the church, and re- 
deemed it with a sum of money. He took an oath to 
succor the distressed, defend religion and the ladies, and 
keep his knightly character unstained. His sword and 
spurs were then fastened upon him, and the lord or 
prince smote him on the shoulder or neck with the flat 
of his sword, saying, " In the name of God, of St. Mich- 
ael, and of St. George, I dub thee knight ; be brave, bold, 
and loyal." Sometimes an esquire was knighted much 
earher upon the field of battle because of some heroic 



NEW EDUCATIONAL FORCES 135 

deed. All ceremony but the last was then dispensed 
with. 

In the knight's training there was little or no book 
learning. He was apt to think that reading and writing 
were matters for priests, monks, and women, not foi 
warriors. 

If the monks cultivated the " other-worldly" spirit, 
the knight cultivated an attractive and fairly ^ ^. , 

^ •' Educational 

high type of " this-worldly" spirit. The vaiueof 

monk in his cell sang, — ^ ^"^^ ^' 

"Jerusalem the golden, 

With milk and honey blessed, 
Beneath thy contemplation 

Sink heart and voice oppressed. 
I know not, I know not, 

What joys await me there, 
What radiancy of glory, 

What bliss beyond compare." 

But the knight sang of the spring-time, of the night- 
ingale and flowers, of love, and of the din of arms. He 
represented a different type of thought and a different 
form of morals. His virtues were valor, courtesy, hospi- 
tality, and loyalty to his lady-love, his companions in 
arms, and his sovereign. 

The influence of chivalry was deep and extensive. It 
gave dignity to the secular interests of life. The train- 
ing and character of the knight were all the more po- 
tent in influence because they received the sanction of 
religion. The knight received the same benediction 
as the monk. Though his virtues were not generally 



136 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

exercised outside of his class, within the limits of their 
exercise they were noble. Chivalry gave rise to the 
first original art and literature after the downfall of 
Rome, church-music and architecture only excepted, 
and both the literature and the art were beautiful and 
vigorous. 

Another phase of social life developed contempora- 
neously with chivalry. 

As society became more settled and population in- 
creased towns favorably located began a rapid growth. 
Wealth also centred in them ; and the nobles whose 
The Chartered ^udal posscssions they vfere inflicted upon 
Towns. them such exactions that they sought relief 

through special charters. It was frequently an easy 
matter to obtain these from the sovereign, because it 
strengthened him by lessening the power of the nobles. 
Some of the towns had secured charters before the 
middle of the eleventh century, and many more before 
its end. 

These chartered towns were very democratic in their 
government. In most of them the merchants and handi- 
craftsmen were organized into guilds. Each 
line of business and each craft had its guild. 
This was a corporate body. The people engaged in the 
craft or business were members of it, elected its officers, 
and regulated their trade. It was by these guilds that 
the towns, or cities rather, generally were governed. 
They elected the mayor and sent representatives to the 
city council. It is almost certain that the guilds furnished 
the patterns for the organization of the universities when 
they came into existence. 



NEW EDUCATIONAL FORCES 137 

The chartered cities early demanded new educational 
matter and new educational spirit. Commercial enter- 
prise increased. The Italian and German The Burgher 
cities especially, such as Bologna, Milan, schools. 

Florence, Liibeck, Hamburg, and Nlirnberg, became 
wealthy and powerful mercantile centres. They needed 
schools somewhat different from those of the cloister and 
the cathedral. The first secular schools were founded 
in them. In these schools the native tongue was taught. 
This was an innovation. Reading, writing, and arith- 
metic were the principal branches. Arithmetic was 
studied for its business use. Some attention was given 
also to geography and history. Sometimes the church 
conducted these schools, but frequently they were in 
charge of lay teachers employed by the city authorities. 
In the latter case, the schools were generally conducted 
in municipal buildings or rented houses. 



XIII 
RISE OF THE UNIVERSITIES 

The university was the best product of all that was 
best in the Middle Age. It was at once the crowning 
achievement of the age and one of its noblest bequests 
to that which succeeded. It ranks among the great 
dynamic agencies that have moulded the social life of 
the modern world. 

The specific sources of the university must be sought 
in the older church schools, particularly in the cathedral 
schools and the labors of the schoolmen, and in the 
influence of the Mohammedan learning, 
chivalry, and the new city organizations with 
their schools. But these would not entirely account for 
it. It is well to keep in mind the fact that chivalry and 
the new cities themselves were manifestations of the very 
growth of seculax, or lay, interests which they fostered. 
The accumulating mass of knowledge and literature, the 
greater complexity of business relations and activity, and 
the greater and more general intelligence of the people, 
demanded more extensive and thorough courses of study 
for the general student, more advanced and special train- 
ing for the theologian, the lawyer, and the doctor. Most 
of the universities grew out of monastic or cathedral 
schools, or sprung up in close connection with them ; but 
whether they did or did not, they all showed recognition 

138 



RISE OF THE UNIVERSITIES 139 

of the demands of the developing secular interests, and 
endeavored to meet them. 

The history of the modern universities begins with 
three institutions, the medical school of Salerno, the law 
school of Bologna, and the theological school of Paris. 
These institutions had certain characteris- ^^^^^ 

tics in common. They were special schools character. 
for the professional study of advanced students, they 
were open to the general public, they were free from the 
rules of monastic orders, and in the course of time had 
extraordinary privileges granted them by church and 
state. In other important respects they materially dif- 
fered from one another. As schools, they were not 
called universities at first, but scholse, studia publica, 
or studia generalia. 

Of the beginning and organization of the school at 
Salerno there is little positive knowledge. The city 
had famous physicians in the tenth century. A tra- 
dition claims that the school took its specific 
character and became celebrated through the 
work of a Carthaginian Christian named Constantine, 
who settled at Salerno in the latter part of the eleventh 
century. He had travelled and studied much in the 
East. He had visited India, Babylon, and Egypt. When 
he returned to his native city enriched with Eastern lore, 
he was obliged to flee because suspected of witchcraft. 
He published many medical w^orks and became famous 
throughout Europe. But there is evidence that the 
school was already celebrated in the middle of the 
eleventh century. 

Rashdall thinks that Latin versions of Greek medical 



140 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

works survived in southern Italy, and that Salerno be- 
came the centre of the medical revival because it w^as a 
health resort. Invalids sought relief in the mildness of 
its climate and the use of its mineral waters. 

When its reputation was established students flocked 
to Salerno in great numbers. They came from Italy, 
France, and Germany. Most of them had completed 
the liberal arts course in monastic or episcopal schools, 
and the institution at Salerno was made a special school, 
the first specialized professional school since the Roman 
schools in the West had died. Nothing more attests its 
liberal character than the fact that Moors and Jews were 
admitted as students, and that Jews taught in it at a 
time when Jews generally were despised and persecuted. 

The school at Salerno never became a university in 
the sense in which that word is now used. It was rec- 
ognized as a part of the University of Naples when that 
was founded in 1225. 

The law school of Bologna, in northern Italy, grew in 
a somewhat similar way. Irnerius had been a teacher 
in the "arts" school. In some way he became inter- 
ested in the study of the civil law. Early in the twelfth 
century he professed himself a teacher of the whole 
Roman civil law, and achieved a great revival of that 
study. Students gathered about him in ever-increasing 
numbers. Many who had completed the 
course settled with him as teachers, "doc- 
tors." They continued the work ; and, as the fame of 
the school spread, the number of both doctors and 
students was enlarged. The beginning of the thirteenth 
century saw ten thousand gathered there. Early in that 



RISE OF THE UNIVERSITIES 141 

century courses in arts and medicine were added to the 
oi^anization, and it became a university in the modern 
sense. In 1360 there was also added a course in theol- 
ogy. Long before that a course in canon, or church, 
law had been introduced. 

The story of the growth of the University of Paris is 
not quite so simple. There had long been an episcopal 
school connected with the cathedral of Notre Dame. A 
series of great teachers made this the most famous cen- 
tre of learning in Europe at the time. The most bril- 
liant and popular of these teachers was Abelard. While 
at the head of the school of Notre Dame and afterwards 
he gave special instruction in theology and philosophy. 
This was early in the twelfth century. His pupils and 
successors, the most famous of whom was Peter Lom- 
bard, confirmed and established this special theological 
teaching, and that seems to have been the proper begin- 
ning of the University of Paris. Canon law 
was early added, medicine about 1200, and 
civil law in 1679. The pope showered privileges upon 
it, and its members and friends spoke of Paris as the 
"mother of universities." Early in the thirteenth cen- 
tury the student body numbered over twenty thousand, 
a large part of the population of the city. 

The most striking feature in the early universities was 
the nature of their organization. The term university 
indicates it. The original use of the word differed from 
its present use. It then meant a community or corpora- 
tion. The first universities were literary republics or- 
ganized after the manner of the trade guilds. Bologna 
will serve well for illustration. 



142 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

At Bologna the teachers controhed the courses of 

study, promotions, and the granting of degrees, but the 

general business management and discipline 

Organization of a i 

University of of the Organization was mainly in the hands 

Bologna. ^f ^j^^ studeuts. 

As the student body grew large with accessions from 
many parts of Europe, those from the same province 
or country lived as close together as possible, forming 
an organization resembling a guild and based on nation- 
ality. From this fact the organizations were known as 
nations. Each nation, besides other necessary officers, 
elected a consiliarius, councillor, who was the governing 
officer of the nation and represented it in the council of 
the university. The nations, with the help of the coun- 
cillors, elected a rector, who, aided by the councillors, 
governed the university as its chief executive officer. 
Bologna really had two universities, for the nations 
from beyond the Alps and the Italian nations formed 
separate organizations, each having its own rector. 
The bishop of Bologna, like the bishops of other 
university cities, was the chancellor of the university. 
He granted the degrees recommended by the teachers, 
but had little authority. 

At Paris the organization was not quite so democratic 

because of the prominence of the liberal arts course. 

Many of the students there were mere boys, 

Organization of 

University of aiid the coutrol of the nations and of the 
^^™' university was mainly in the hands of the 

teachers. They elected the councillors of the nations, 
called procurators at Paris, and these elected the rector. 
Bologna had thirty-five nations, while Paris had only 



RISE OF THE UNIVERSITIES 143 

four ; but those of Paris were subdivided, each division 
having an organization of its own with a dean at the 
head. 

In the course of the thirteenth century the teachers 
of the different universities formed organizations of their 
own, called faculties, or colleges. Each 

Faculties. 

faculty had a dean. The number of these 
faculties was generally four, philosophy, medicine, law, 
and theology. These have been retained with an in- 
creasing number of subdivisions. 

At first the teachers were called doctors ; at Paris, 
masters, magistri. When the university organization was 
tolerably complete, these titles lost their general meaning 
and became degrees fixed in the order bachelor, master, 
and doctor. 

The universities were early taken under the protec- 
tion and favor of pope, emperor, and king. The cor- 
porate rights which they assumed, like the pnviieges and 
guilds, were soon confirmed to them by Discipune. 
special charter. The patronage of the pope brought the 
power of the church to their support, and made the 
degrees and licenses to teach good all over Western 
Europe. 

In cases of civil or criminal misdemeanors, the mem- 
bers of the university were not subject to the jurisdiction 
of the city authorities, but to that of university authorities 
elected by themselves. Quite naturally the discipline 
frequently was lax, and there was much looseness and 
recklessness among the students. Conflicts with the 
town people and authorities were quite common, and 
there were frequent riots resulting in broken heads. The 



144 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

university generally had the town at its mercy. At first 
there were no university buildings. The teachers lec- 
tured in their own or rented rooms. Because of the 
character of its organization, it was, therefore, a com- 
paratively easy matter for the whole university to move 
to another city. In case of conflict between the two, a 
threat to leave was in most cases sufficient to make the 
town yield to the school. In some instances, however, 
large parts of universities did actually move away and 
establish themselves in other cities. The privileges and 
charters granted to these institutions by the pope made 
them comparatively free even from the local church au- 
thorities. It was a rule with at least some of them not 
to elect a bishop or a monk as rector. 

The first universities were rapidly followed by others. 
By the end of the fourteenth century the principal ones 
established were, Pavia, in Italy ; Oxford and Cambridge, 
in England ; Valladolid and Salamanca, in Spain ; Mont- 
pellier and Orleans, in France ; and Prague, Vienna, and 
Erfurt, in Germany. 

To the student of educational history the development 

of the university marks the transition from Mediaeval to 

Modern history. For him, Modern history 

Historic Value •' "' 

of the begins with the revival of pagan learning. 

University. ^^^ ^j^^ university made that effective. The 
democratic character of the new institution undoubtedly 
gave its students much unfortunate license, but it also 
gave them a broad range of freedom in intellectual ac- 
tivity, and that was the secret of the tremendous power 
of the university as a social factor, and so it continues 
to be. 



RISE OF THE UNIVERSITIES 



145 



HISTORICAL SUMMARY 



Catechetical School of Pantsenus, Alexandria 


181 


Paul, the first Egyptian hermit . . Middle of 3d century. 


Monastic Community of Pachomius 


320 


Cathedral Schools with Trivium 


. 4th century. 


Cassian's Monastery at Marseilles . 


404 


Benedict's Monastery at Monte Casino 


528 


St. Columba settled on lona . 


663 


Chrodegang's organization of Cathedral School 


s . 8th century. 


Alcuin summoned to Charlemagne's court 


782 


Mohammedan Schools flourish in Spain . 


9th-llth century. 


Chivalry ...... 


10th-13th century. 


Scholasticism ..... 


llth-14th century. 


City incorporation ..... 


.11th century. 


Salerno founded 


. 11th century. 


Bologna and Paris 


. 12th century. 



10 



PART IV 

PERIOD OF SUPREMACY OF PAGAN 
CLASSIC LITERATURE 



XIV 
THE RENAISSANCE 

For centuries men had lived in the shadow of the 
monastery. Under its influence the tone of cultivated 
thought was sombre. It at least rebuked, if it did not 
condemn, the natural passions and ambitions of men. 
The monk grew as naturally out of the Roman and 
feudal social soil as the pines grow on the hill-sides, and 
monachism flourished. By the beginning of the eleventh 
century there had been established fifteen thousand and 
seventy abbeys of the Benedictine order Dominance of 
alone. The monk controlled the leading the Monk, 
schools, and he was the typical churchman. The priest- 
hood itself conformed to the monastic type. In the 
eleventh century the celibacy of the clergy was made 
universal by the decree of Pope Gregory the Seventh. 

Monks and monastic orders increased so rapidly that 
the last great mediaeval orders to be established, the Do- 
minicans and Franciscans, received papal sanction only 
because of the uniqueness of their vows. They were 
devoted to absolute poverty, and became known as 
Mendicant Friars. They manifested the monastic type 
of thought and life in its most radical and intense form. 
They represented a revival of monastic energy, and en- 
deavored to make themselves popular preachers and 
gain control of education. These orders arose in the 
thirteenth century. They accomplished wonders, but 

149 



150 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

the day of monastic supremacy in learning had passed 
away, and the next century witnessed many attacks 
upon the system and the beginning of a decline. The 
cowled monk was still a prominent and characteristic 
feature of social life, but some of his glory had faded 
away. 

Knighthood was changing its character. The feudal 
knight was passing away. With all his faults, he had 
served a noble purpose. He had represented the health, 
The Passing of ^i^or, and uoble possibilities of the life out- 
the Knight. gide of mouastic walls. He had created an 
atmosphere of charming romance about the great events 
of his day, and had put a crown of glory upon many 
virtues of our every-day life. He left to the future as a 
precious heritage the remembrance of these things, to- 
gether with the tales of the Trouveur and the songs of 
the Minnesinger and the Troubadour. Even the passing 
of feudal chivalry was a matter of great moment. It 
shattered itself in the Crusades, but in the heroic strug- 
gles of its dissolution it shattered also many a narrowing 
and misleading tradition of custom, thought, and super- 
stition. 

The citizen, represented at his best by the respectable 
artisan and substantial merchant, was rapidly multiply- 
ing. With less ostentation, but with no less sincerity, 
he cultivated the virtues which the knight 

The Citizen 

had made beautiful, and gave them broader 
application. Moreover, he was creating wealth and de- 
manding peace, paving the way to leisure, learning, and 
the creation of art. He represented the sturdy hope of 
the coming liberties of men and the uplift of the masses. 



THE RENAISSANCE 151 

His interests, too, were represented in the universities, 
and were predominant there in many ways. 

Under the influence of the new spirit that pervaded 
society men made a discovery that thrilled them with 
the intensity of a new life. Latin had never ceased to 
be the language of the churchman and the scholar. 
Through all the Middle Ages Vergil and a few other Latin 
classic authors had been studied, but chiefly as aids to 
the mastery of the Latin tongue and not for the sake of 
the thoughts they expressed. The tradition of the old 
condemnation lingered. But now, in the fourteenth 
century, men suddenly found the blood of an intensely 
human life throbbing in this old literature. They dis- 
covered in it the stories of wars and loves Mature of the 
like their own, the wisdom of statesmen and Renaissance. 
the impassioned pleas of orators. The tales of gods and 
goddesses became revelations of human passions, strength, 
and beauty. They learned that in the olden time men 
had been filled with an unrestrained love for things 
beautiful in nature, such as they had again lately recog- 
nized with pleasure in their own souls. They observed, 
too, that the old writers had been able to express their 
thoughts and feelings in a polished and charming man- 
ner. These discoveries delighted them, and they began 
to hunt up the old literature and study it with a pas- 
sionate earnestness that was like intoxication. This new 
study has been termed by historians the " Revival of 
Learning" or the "New Learning." It was at once the 
cause and a phase of a broad historical movement 
known as the "Renaissance," or new birth. 

The Revival of Learning very naturally began in Italy. 



152 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Its first great leader was Petrarch, with Boccaccio a 
close second. Petrarch lived between 1304 and 1374. 
While still a boy his ear was captivated by 
the musical sweetness of Cicero's language. 
His devotion to Latin literature in his mature years was 
little short of a passionate worship. He commenced the 
study of Greek, but circumstances cut short his effort 
to master the language. A friend sent him a copy of 
Homer from Constantinople. He could not read it. " I 
often embrace it," he wrote, "sighing, '0 great man, 
how I would like to hear you speak, but death has closed 
one of my ears and distance the other.' " The two 
ears were the two men who might have taught him 
Greek. His contribution to the Renaissance was a Latin 
epic, Africa^ and a number of incomparable Italian 
sonnets. 

Boccaccio was bom only a few years later. He was 
more fortunate with respect to Greek than Petrarch. 
He studied it under Leontius Pilatus, a Calabrian, trans- 
lating Homer under his instruction. How thoroughly 
the enthusiasts of the Renaissance were satu- 
rated with the classic spirit is indicated by 
the manner in which Boccaccio stated his birthday. " I 
was born," he said, " on that day in which men celebrate 
the glorious return of the son of Jupiter from the de- 
feated realm of Pluto," meaning that he was born on 
Easter, the day of the resurrection of the Son of God. 
It sounds like sacrilege now, though it was not so in- 
tended. It was, however, unfortunately, prophetic of 
many a sacrilegious utterance afterwards made in Italy 
by disciples of the New Learning. Like Petrarch, Boc- 



THE RENAISSANCE 153 

caccio devoted himself to literature. His masterpiece 
was the Decameron, which inspired the first great English 
poem, the Canterbury Tales of Chaucer, and furnished 
material for it. 

The literary productions of Petrarch and Boccaccio 
gave both men such distinction as to make their influ- 
ence very great. Enthusiasm for classic learning grew 
with wonderful rapidity. In 1396, Emanuel Chryso- 
lauras, who had formerly been a Greek teacher in Con- 
stantinople and had been sent to Italy to implore help 
against the Turks, was attracted by this enthusiasm, and 
settled in Florence as a teacher of Greek The Greek 
literature. Others followed him, but the Teachers. 
greatest impetus to this study came from the misfortunes 
of the East. In 1453 Constantinople fell into the hands 
of the Turks. This is the most important date in the 
history of the revival. Greek scholars fled to Italy in 
large numbers, carrying the literary treasures of their 
country with them. They were received with open 
arms. 

The New Learning soon found a great ally in the print- 
ing press. Attracted by it, German printers hurried into 
Italy with the new invention. An edition of Vergil was 
printed in Florence in 1472. The first origi- The Printing 
nal book printed in Italy was a Greek gram- Press. 

mar, in 1476. By the end of the fifteenth century more 
than ten thousand editions of books and pamphlets had 
been published in Europe. 

From the beginning of the enthusiasm there was eager 
ransacking of out-of-way hiding-places of books and of 
monastic and cathedral libraries for manuscripts of the 



154 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

precious literature. One enthusiastic collector, Niccolo 

Niccoli, left to the city of Florence a collection of eight 

hundred manuscripts, for which the de Medici 

The Libraries. inn n 

erected the first public library in Italy. Lo- 
renzo de Medici twice sent an agent to Greece to buy up 
manuscripts. Pope Nicholas V., who was one of the 
most generous patrons of the New Learning, is said to 
have collected five thousand manuscripts. With these 
he founded the famous and valuable Vatican library. 

The fiery enthusiasm of the New Learning could not 
be confined to Italy. It soon overleaped the Alps. 
Scholars hastened to the feet of the Greek teachers in 
Florence and Rome from all the transalpine countries, 
and Greek exiles sought refuge in transalpine centres of 
learning, introducing' there their wonder-working litera- 
ture. As early as 1470 there was a native Greek teach- 
ing the language and literature of his country 
Learning in the at the University of Paris. Before the cen- 
Umversities. ^^^^ closed Grocyu, Linacre, and John Colet, 
Oxford scholars, had studied Greek in Florence and in- 
troduced it into their university on their return to Eng- 
land. In a manner somewhat similar, it found its way 
into the universities of Germany and other countries. It 
almost seemed that the universities had been called 
into existence for the New Learning. Their lay spirit 
adapted them for its kindly reception. They took it up 
they cherished it, they spread it. The New Learning, 
in turn, richly repaid them. It gave them a new charac- 
ter, new courses of study, new food for thought, new 
enthusiasm for study, and more students. 



THE RENAISSANCE 155 

NEW LEARNING IN TEUTONIC COUNTRIES 

In Italy the interest of the new movement remained 
centred in the classic literatures of pagan Greece and 
Rome, but in the Teutonic countries it assumed a differ- 
ent character. In these, from the beginning, the scholars 
who gained mastery of the Greek tongue welcomed it 
as a means of discovering new truth and beauty in the 
New Testament. When Colet returned from Italy to 
Oxford, he undertook a series of lectures on the epistles 
of St. Paul based on a study of the Greek originals. 
The new study, it became manifest, had wrought a 
change in his religious views. He rejected traditional 
dogmas and the mystical theology of the Middle Ages, 
and based his faith and teaching upon a natural inter- 
pretation of the simple Scriptural narrative. 

This peculiar feature of the New Learning was spe- 
cially prominent in Germany and the other Teutonic 
countries of the continent, and was there fateful of great 
events. Almost immediately the study of the Greek 
New Testament aroused an interest in Hebrew and the 
study of the Old Testament, and to many scholars the 
revived Eible study became a matter of far greater im- 
portance than the study of the ancient classics. 

Much of this interest in Bible study is directly trace- 
able to a religious order known as the Hieronymians, or 
Brethren of the Common Life. The order Brethren of the 
was founded in the fourteenth century by a common Life. 
Hollander named Gerhard Groot. These Brethren un- 
dertook the work of giving religious instruction to poor 
children. They soon had flourishing institutions. Their 



156 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

most famous representative for all time is Thomas a 
Kempis, the author of the Imitatio Christi. 

The later leaders of the order laid great stress on the 
teaching of the Scriptures in the mother tongue, and so 
became diligent students of the Bible, translating portions 
of it for the benefit of their pupils. They also departed 
trom the design of the founder of the order, in that they 
established liberal courses of study and awakened in 
their pupils great love of learning. 

Their most famous school was at Deventer, Holland. 
Here was educated the first notable German humanist, 
John Wessel, a man who aided in determining 
the character of the humanistic movement in 
his native land. It is claimed that he got his first knowl- 
edge of Greek from Greek monks at Cologne, where they 
had found asylum in a Dominican convent. From Co- 
logne he went to Paris and Rome to perfect himself in 
humanistic learning. From Rome he returned to Paris, 
and spent sixteen years there as scholar and teacher. 
Early in the decade between 1470 and 1480 he became 
intimately acquainted with two young students at the 
university upon whom he exercised great influence. 
They were Rudolph Agricola and John Reuchlin, both 
destined to become leaders of humanism — another name 
for classic learning — in their native land. In his love 
for the study of the Bible Wessel had learned Hebrew 
as well as Greek, and the trend which he gave to their 
thoughts with respect to his favorite studies became 
apparent in the after-activity of his friends. 

Agricola was born in 1443, near Groningen, Germany. 
It is claimed by some that he was for a time a student 



THE RENAISSANCE 157 

under Thomas a Kempis. He pursued classical studies 
both at Paris and in Italy. He divided his whole after-life 
between studying and lecturing. He taught 
the Latin and Greek literatures at the uni- 
versities of Heidelberg and Worms. He was an elo- 
quent man, and his great reputation as a scholar gave 
him almost unbounded influence in Germany as a pio- 
neer of the classical learning. True to the influence of 
Wessel, he took up and made some progress in the study 
of Hebrew. 

Reuchlin was born at Pforzheim, in the Black Forest, 
in 1455. His father had a position connected with the 
Dominican convent located there, and from 
the monks Reuchlin imbibed his first love of 
letters. At the advice of Wessel he studied Greek at 
Paris and, afterwards, at Basel, where he also taught both 
Greek and Latin. He was a thorough student and a 
born teacher. At different periods in his life after leaving 
Basel he taught Latin and Greek and Greek and Hebrew 
at the universities of Ingolstadt and Tubingen. Besides 
this he taught and influenced a large number of human- 
istic students privately. He gave himself up to the New 
Learning unreservedly. He prepared a number of Greek 
books and a Latin lexicon ; and as rapidly as new classic 
texts appeared in Italy he prepared editions of them for 
German students, sparing neither time nor money to 
promote his beloved studies. The rapid introduction of 
humanism into the German universities was mainly due 
to him and Agricola. 

At different times he visited Rome. On one of these 
visits he entered the lecture-room of Argyropulus, a 



158 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Greek who was teaching his native Hterature. Argyro- 
pulus asked him from what country he hailed and 
whether he had commenced the study of Greek. 
Reuchhn answered that he was German and was not 
unacquainted with Greek. The teacher handed him a 
copy of Thucydides. Reuchhn translated a part of it 
into Latin with such accuracy and fluency that Argy- 
ropulus was astonished. " Our orphaned and exiled 
Greece," he exclaimed, "has already flown across the 
Alps." 

During this stay in Rome Reuchlin also commenced 
the study of Hebrew. For the sake of the study of the 
Old Testament he pursued his Hebrew studies with great 
zeal. In 1506 he published Rudimenta Hehraica^ a com- 
bined Hebrew grammar and lexicon, the first work of 
'the kind prepared for modern Christian students. For 
his share in the reviving of this study that had been 
neglected for so many centuries he has been termed the 
" father of modern Hebrew study." 

No account of the Revival of Learning could be com- 
plete without a recital of the part played in it by Eras- 
mus. He was the greatest of all the humanists, one of 
the very few scholars to whom a monument has ever 
been erected anywhere in the world. No country can 
Early Life of claim him as exclusively its own. He was 
Erasmus. bom in Rotterdam in 1467, but early in life 

began to wander. For a time he resided in Paris, then 
in England, afterwards in Italy, passing back and forth, 
and finally settled in Basel, where he died in 1536. 
There is a wonderful charm in the story of this scholar's 
life, not unmingled with pathos because of the sadness 



THE RENAISSANCE 159 

of its beginning and the melancholy of its end. Having 
legal claim to no name, he was early left stranded by the 
death of his mother, who had cherished him with warm 
affection. But no man ever seems to have possessed 
more the power of winning beneficent friends. 

He first attended the school of the Brethren of the 
Common Life at Deventer. He won the loving admira- 
tion of his teachers. One of the brethren on one occa- 
sion embraced him in his enthusiasm and told him that 
he would one day reach the highest pinnacle of learning. 
Agricola saw him at the age of twelve. Noticing the 
beauty of his writing, the shape of his head, and the 
clearness of his eye, he exclaimed, " Tu eris magnus," 
"Thou wilt be great.'' 

Erasmus commenced the study of Greek at Paris. 
Nothing better indicates the temper of the young scholar, 
and at the same time the enthusiasm aroused by the 
New Learning wherever it went, than a statement in one 
of his letters. " I have given up my whole soul to Greek 
learning," he writes, "and as soon as I get Activity as a 
any money I shall buy Greek books, and scholar. 

then I shall buy some clothes." From Paris he went to 
Oxford, and studied Greek there under Grocyn, being for 
a time intimately associated with Colet and the other 
humanists in England. 

He did very little teaching, but he v^ote with pro- 
digious industry. Much of his writing was on educa- 
tional topics. Besides helping to prepare grammars for 
the new grammar schools which the New Learning was 
calling into existence in England, he wrote books on all 
sorts of subjects, from the Manner of Letter- Writing and 



160 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Mules of Etiquette for the Young through all the phases 
of pedagogical theory. 

He had keen sensibility combined with genial humor. 
This was constantly revealing itself in pleasant witticisms. 
"I long to visit Italy," he once said when too poor to 
go, "but it is not easy to fly without wings." Arch- 
bishop Warham once sent him a present of fifty angels. 
On receiving them he exclaimed, with a pleasant laugh, 
" I wish there were thirty legions of them." This genial 
disposition enlivened his writings and manifested itself in 
his educational ideals. He desired women to have the 
same advantages of learning as men. The lessons were 
to be adapted in length and difficulty to the ability of the 
child, and taught with such sympathy and tenderness 
that the child must love the teacher. 

Perhaps more completely and thoroughly than any 

one else Erasmus set forth humanistic educational ideals. 

In his scheme of education everything was 

Exponent of J ^ 

Humanistic to be Subordinated to the classics, in the 
Ideals. mastery of which was supposed to lie the 

source of all scholarly culture. Mathematics received 
but slight attention, and all necessary historical knowl- 
edge, he thought, could be acquired by a hasty skimming 
over the subject. He advocated the study of geography, 
natural history, and agriculture ; not, however, to pre- 
pare for the demands of practical life, but, as was the 
case also with history, to prepare for more thorough 
understanding and appreciation of allusions in classic 
literature to facts in these realms of knowledge. Be- 
cause of the hold humanism had taken on the European 
mind, such ideals prevailed in the educational work of 



THE RENAISSANCE 161 

several centuries, and have yielded but slowly to those 
of later times. 

The most fruitful work of Erasmus, however, was 
his edition of the Greek New Testament. Although the 
work had serious defects, it marks the begin- ^^^ (.^^^^ 
ning of a new type of religious thought, of Testament. 
a new era in human history. The influence of Colet is 
apparent in the work. In the preparation of it Erasmus 
showed where the accepted Latin version departed from 
the Greek text, and his interpretation was based upon 
the text itself and not upon received dogma. His object 
was to lead people to the study of the living Christ as 
portrayed vividly in the gospels, so they might find in 
him the inspiration to noble living. 

He wished that even the weakest woman might read 
the gospels and the epistles of Paul, and that they were 
translated into all languages. " I long for the day," he 
declared, " when the husbandman shall sing portions of 
them to himself as he follows the plough, when the weaver 
shall hum them to the time of his shuttle, when the 
traveller shall while away with their stories the weariness 
of his journey." In the fulfilment of the wish, not long 
deferred, was a radical transformation of Christendom, 
the dawning of a new intelligence, and the mspiration to 
many a sturdy blow for human liberty. 



11 



XV 

THE REFORMATION AND PUBLIC 
EDUCATION 

The story of the Reformation belongs partly to the 
history of education, for the Reformation was rooted in 
the revival of learning and nurtured in the universities. 
Other conditions in the church occasioned it, but its 
Origin of the positive energy was derived from the new 
Reformation, study of the Bible involved in the Teutonic 
revival. All the leading reformers were humanists. 
When Zwingli became priest at Glarus, in Switzerland, 
he gathered about him a number of young Latin stu- 
dents ; and when Martin Luther entered the Augustinian 
convent, he took with him the Latin authors he most 
admired. But the reformers were all humanists of the 
Teutonic type, subordinating their linguistic knowledge 
to the study of the Scriptures. In Luther's case the 
humanistic spirit was almost entirely swallowed up in 
enthusiasm for Scriptural study. Out of this study came 
the new conceptions of religion, morals, and the church 
that produced the Reformation. 

Relation to "^^^ relation of the Reformation to edu- 

state cation was a double one. The religious 

Education and t • . 

Elementary revolutioii iiot Only was the product 01 an 
Schools. educational movement, but it also created a 

new epoch in educational development. Prior to it the 
church controlled all schools with the exception of 
162 



THE REFORMATION AND PUBLIC EDUCATION 163 

burgher schools here and there and some of the uni- 
versities in the beginning of their existence. Schools 
generally were designed with reference to secondary and 
higher instruction. They were open for such people as 
cared to avail themselves of them or were able to do so. 
The number of these was relatively small, for the large 
majority of people felt no need of education and took 
little interest in it. 

Now the Reformation began a radical revolution both 
in school control and in the nature and extent of ele- 
mentary instruction. It gave birth to the public school 
with its state support and supervision and its efforts to 
make intelligence universal. Through the translations 
of the Bible it also gave to the great body of the com- 
mon people a remarkably effective incentive to learn, at 
least, to read. The interest in popular education then 
instituted has, for various reasons, increased to such an 
extent that it is to-day the dominant fact in education. 
To it, mainly, are due the modern achievements in the 
science of pedagogy and the unceasing effort to make 
teaching a fine art. 

Most of the leading reformers were deeply interested 
in education. The reason for this is not far to seek. 
The loaric of their religious theory and the 

* . . Causes. 

force of circumstances compelled it. Their 
fundamental propositions were : (1) man is justified by 
his personal faith ; (2) the source of this faith is in the 
truths proclaimed in the Bible. 

When they placed upon the individual so much of the 
responsibility of working out the problem of his charac- 
ter and salvation, and sought the basis of his faith in a 



164 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

knowledge of Bible truth, they were forced to recognize 
more or less clearly the need of teaching the people 
sufficiently, at least, to enable them to read the sacred 
volume with intelligence. 

But more than this, the reformers took authority in 
doctrine and discipline out of the exclusive possession 
of the hierarchy and placed its responsibilities upon the 
whole body of the church. This was an exaltation of 
the laity, a recognition of the universality of priesthood, 
and demanded an enlightened laity as well as an edu- 
cated clergy. 

Even if the reformers had failed to recognize the logic 
of the position they had assumed, startling events that 
ensued would of themselves have opened their eyes to 
the necessity for general and lilDeral education. Scarcely 
had the dissolution of the old church allegiance begun, 
when such a series of wild, fanatic outbursts of religious 
extravagances and excesses swept over Germany and 
Switzerland as threatened for a time to destroy the Ref- 
ormation and subvert the civil order as well. Facts 
like these are more potent than logic. 

It was very natural that the Swiss reformer, Zwingli, 
should be one of the very first to manifest an interest in 
education. He was himself a teacher, and, as a Swiss, 
he represented the most democratic type of Protestantism. 
In 1523 he wrote in Latin what, almost beyond a doubt, 
zwingii's ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ Protestant treatise on education. 
Treatise. Jt was entitled The Christian Education of 

Youth. It was published in the Swiss dialect in the 
following year. 

In this work he plainly indicates the principal trend 



THE REFORMATION AND PUBLIC EDUCATION 165 

of Reformation thought by the prominence he gives to 
the Bible. He outhnes a course in Scriptural study, so 
arranged, to speak in the spirit of the little book itself, 
as to cause the glorious news of the Gospel to dawn 
upon the mind joyously, and produce faith and peace 
and righteousness. 

He advocated the study of objects in nature, regard- 
ing the beautiful structure of the world and the harmo- 
nious arrangement of its parts as revelations of the 
wisdom, skill, and loving providence of God. He pro- 
posed also the study of the classics and Hebrew, and 
with them the study of arithmetic, surveying, and music. 
He encouraged running, jumping, putting the shot, and 
wrestling as means of developing the body. Altogether 
it was a sensible course of study. 

The great central figure of the educational revolution 
wrought by the Reformation was Dr. Martin Luther. 
He was a man of the people. He understood them, 
sympathized with them in their needs, and labored for 
them. By birth he belonged to the peasant class. He 
first saw the light at Eisleben, in 1483. His leather had 
moved there to earn his livelihood as a miner. Soon 
after Martin's birth the family moved to Mansfeld. 
Here the father in the course of time erected 

„ 11, 1 T 1 . ^ Martin Luther. 

a lorge, and slowly worked his way from 

poverty to somewhat easy circumstances and to some 

social prominence. 

With the ambitious design of making a lawyer of him 
his father sent Luther away to school. Though at the 
time there was nothing unusual about it, there is a touch- 
ing pathos in the story of his student hfe at Magdeburg 



166 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

and Eisenach, Until taken up by the Cotta family he 
was obliged, because of his father's lack of means, to 
get his meals by begging or singing. The echoes of his 
songs in the streets have not died out of human life yet. 
That singing prepared him to become, years afterwards, 
Germany's teacher of popular hymns and to sing for it 
Mn Feste Burg^ the Marseillaise of the Reformation. 

He took his university degree at Erfurt, and then be- 
came a monk in the Augustinian convent located there. 
He was called from the convent to take a professorship 
in the university. While occupying that position, in 
1517, he nailed his ninety-five theses on the church 
door at Wittenberg, and thus assumed leadership of the 
Reformation in Germany. 

Luther's translation of the Bible had immeasurable 
value as an educational factor. His German version of the 
New Testament was made from the Greek Testament of 
Translation of Erasmus. It appeared ill 1524. The trans- 
the Bible. latioii of all the Scriptures was published in 
1534. This Bil^le of his fixed the literary standard of 
the German language, thus marking the beginning of 
modern High German, just as Wycliffe's translation and 
the Canterbury Tales of Chaucer mark the beginning of 
our modern English tongue. But it did more. Its effect 
upon the masses of the people is not easy to understand 
now ; it was little short of the marvellous. The use of 
Latin had made all who were able to read a class separate 
from other men ; the learned, a higher order of beings. 
When now the greatest and sweetest of all literatures 
was put into the language of the people, it came to 
thousands who had never read, and they sought to 



THE REFORMATION AND PURLIC EDUCATION 167 

master its pages with the passionate eagerness of a 
newly awakened appetite. In a few years nearly half a 
million copies were in circulation. " Even shoemakers, 
women, and ignorant people," said a writer hostile to 
the Reformation, " are eagerly reading the New Testa- 
ment as the fountain of all truth, with such frequency 
that they know it by heart. They also carry it about in 
their pockets." 

But Luther also wrought directly as an educational 
reformer. The first specific fact in the history of modem 
public education is a letter written by him in Letter to the 
1524. It was addressed to the magistrates German cities. 
and councillors of the German cities. In this letter he 
appealed to them to establish Christian schools for the 
people. He claimed that it was their duty to do it, and 
to support them out of the public treasury. " Every 
year," he said, "the cities expend so much upon arms, 
roads, bridges, and numberless other things that con- 
tribute to their temporal peace and prosperity ; should 
they not much more contribute as much for the employ- 
ment of teachers for the poor youth, so much in need 
of instruction." 

He pleaded for the education of all children of a 
proper age, both boys and girls. The children of the 
poorer families that needed their services at home were 
to be kept at school but an hour or two a day. In a 
published sermon supplementing this letter he took the 
ground that if parents failed to send their children to 
school, it was not only the right but also the duty of 
the authorities to compel them to do so. In these con- 
ceptions of his are the germs of modern compulsory 



168 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

education and of elementary education adapted rather to 
the immediate needs of the people than to the demands 
of the courses of study in the higher schools. For these 
elementary schools, too, Luther advised the employment 
of women as teachers. 

In support of his plea for schools Luther clearly and 
vigorously set forth a number of arguments. The first 
M^as based on the moral value of education. He claimed 
Luther's ^^^^^ neither reason nor Christian love could 

Arguments. suffer any part of the population to grow up 
undisciplined, and thus become poison to other children 
and sources of destruction to the community. 

The public school plan embodied in the letter included 
secondary schools with courses in Latin, Greek, Hebrew, 
history, and mathematics. In these schools students 
specially gifted were to be retained longer than the others 
in order that they might be fitted for teaching and the 
ministry. 

His general argument for these secondary schools 
was the relation of education to prosperity. " A city's 
prosperity," he declared, '' does not consist alone in 
the accumulation of treasure, in strong walls, beautiful 
houses, many weapons and equipments ; but its greatest 
wealth, its health and power, does consist in this, that 
it have many learned, sensible, honest, and well-dis- 
ciplined citizens. These, indeed, can gather treasures 
and all good things, preserve them, and properly use 
them." 

His special and crowning argument was founded on 
the needs of religion. There were wanted, to keep this 
pure and effective, men thoroughly trained in the Ian- 



THE REFORMATION AND PUBLIC EDUCATION 169 

guages in order that they might be able to interpret the 
Scriptures correctly. 

In this important letter there are many more things 
of interest to the student of pedagogy. Among the 
studies Luther naturally gave the first place Pedagogical 
to the Bible, especially to the New Testa- i^^eas. 

ment, because of its relation to the development of 
Christian knowledge and character. 

He clearly recognized the nature of grammar, rhetoric, 
and logic as formal studies, and the delusion of regard- 
ing them as the source of practical knowledge and elo- 
quence. He strongly advocated the study of things 
themselves as the means of securing the substance, for 
the proper treatment and expression of which the 
formal sciences must be mastered. 

His views on the study of nature and the importance 
and character of gymnastic training were similar to those 
of Zwingli, 

For two studies, history and music, he made special 
pleas in different papers on educational subjects. He 
esteemed history for its moral value. He regarded it as 
a series of moral lessons in the concrete, having the 
reality and force of life. " Laws, arts, good council, 
warning, threats, comfort, knowledge, and wisdom well 
out of history," he thought, " as out of a living fountain." 

Of music, with the enthusiasm of a lover, he asserted 
that it is " one of the most beautiful and glorious gifts of 
God." He himself had used it as an instrument of tre- 
mendous power. He thought no one fitted to teach 
school who has not the power of song. He called it a 
mistress of discipline and good breeding, and, almost 



170 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

like the Greeks of old, he looked upon it as a means of 
making people mild and gentle of spirit, orderly, and 
sensible. 

It is interesting to note that when the Duke of Mans- 
feld, in response to Luther's appeal, determined to open 
schools for his people, he commissioned him to establish 
a primary and a secondary school in Eisleben, his native 
town. Thus he who had gone out a poor boy returned 
to shower blessings upon his townspeople. These schools 
served as models for many more that sprang up in the 
Protestant portions of Germany. 



XVI 
THE CLASSICAL SECONDARY SCHOOLS 

Among the interesting events of the sixteenth century- 
were the rise and multiplication of classical secondary- 
schools. While the story of these new schools is closely 
interwoven with that of the religious strug- 

Origin. 

gles of the tnne, they owed their origin and 
character mainly to the Revival of Learning. This not 
only pushed aside the scholastic philosophy in the uni- 
versities and gave them a new life with new courses of 
study, but it also reformed secondary instruction and 
gave it the vigor and freshness of renewed youth. 

A few years after John Colet's return from Italy he 
was appointed dean of St. Paul's Cathedral in London. 
In 1512 he established and endowed, in con- 
nection with the cathedral, a secondary, or 
grammar school, as institutions of the kind came to be 
known in England. He called to its head a capable 
teacher, William Lilly, an enthusiastic humanist. His 
injunction to Lilly was that he should exclude the scho- 
lastic logic and carefully cultivate a knowledge of the 
Greek and Latin literatures. Lilly was very willing to 
respond. He was an Oxford bachelor, and had gained a 
knowledge of Greek from Greek exiles on the island of 
Rhodes and from famous teachers in Italy. 

With the new studies were introduced also new 
grading, new text-books, and new methods. Lilly himself 

171 



172 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

composed for his school a Latin grammar that held its 
place in England for many years, and Colet and Erasmus 
helped to give character to the books placed in the hands 
of the pupils. 

The school of St. Paul's was a fruitful one. In imita- 
ti>pn of it, older schools changed their courses of study, 
and many new schools like it were established. Greene, 
in his History of the English People^ says that more 
grammar schools were founded in the latter part of the 
reign of Henry VIII. than in the three centuries that pre- 
ceded. Of the secondary schools now famous in Eng- 
land, Eaton was founded in the fifteenth century, Rugby 
at the height of the new movement before the sixteenth 
century closed, and Harrow was opened early in the 
seventeenth, though its foundation had been provided 
long before. 

In the Germanic countries, especially in Germany itself, 

the new secondary school movement was more vigorous, 

if possible, than in England. It took its life 

In Germany. 

largely from the scholarship and burning zeal 
of Philip Melanchthon, the friend and associate of Martin 
Luther. 

There were many interesting features in the life of 
Melanchthon, not the least of which was his refined and 
amiable disposition. His grandmother, with whom he 
lived after the death of his father, was Reuchlin's sister. 
Meianchthon's ReuchHu took great interest in him and gave 
Early Life. hij^i Latin and Greek books. One day in 
sport he put a doctor's little red hat upon the young 
scholar's head because of his brightness and diligence. 
It was Reuchlin, too, who gave him his Greek name, 



THE CLASSICAL SECONDARY SCHOOLS 173 

Melanchthon, in place of his German name, Schwartzerd, 
meaning black earth. 

When the young scholar had ripened in the universi- 
ties, Reuchlin accounted him second in learning only to 
Erasmus, and secured for him the professorship of Greek 
in the University of Wittenberg, in 1518. In his affection- 
ate farewell to his young protege, he applied to him the 
Scriptural promise made to Abraham : " Get thee out of 
thy country, and from thy kindred, and from thy father's 
house, unto a land that I will show thee ; and I will 
make of thee a great nation, and I will bless thee, and 
make thy name great ; and thou shalt be a blessing." 

In many ways the beautiful prophecy was Relation to 
fulfilled. The humanistic transformation of "^""'^g'^^l^^^'^ 
the German universities, commenced by school. 

scholars like Reuchlin and Agricola, was completed 
through the inspiring genius and earnestness of the new 
teacher at Wittenberg. 

He took a fatherly interest in his students. There 
probably had been no teacher so popular since the days 
of Abelard. At times as many as t\vo thousand students 
attended his lectures. He prepared annotated editions 
of classic authors, and wrote text-books on nearly all 
the subjects taught in his day, including one on physical 
science. 

The courses of study for the new secondary schools, 
called gymnasia in Germany, were formed mainly under 
his influence ; some directly in accordance with his ad- 
vice. The most famous of the gymnasium rectors, with 
one marked exception, and a large number of the 
teachers, had been students of his at the university. 



174 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Melanchthon's influence upon the growing school work 
of his native land was increased through a new office to 
which he was called. He was appointed visitant of the 
The Saxony cliurchcs and schools of Saxony. For the 
School Plan, guidance of the teachers he drew up a plan 
for the organization and conduct of the schools. It was 
adopted by other states also. It is an interesting docu- 
ment because it so clearly reveals the pedagogical ideals 
and methods of that day. 

The plan includes both primary and secondary studies. 
It lacks the fulness of detail and completeness of organi- 
zation that characterize the schemes developed after- 
wards in the gymnasia by some of Melanchthon's former 
students. Its greatest defect is the neglect of the mother- 
tongue. The value of careful instruction in this had not 
yet dawned upon the minds of educators ; even Luther 
himself failed to discover it. 

Tlie work is divided into three grades. In each of 
these the pupils were to be retained until they had fairly 
mastered its studies. 

In the first grade, pupils were to study the Hand- 
hook for Children, containing the alphabet, the Lord's 
prayer, the creed, and prayers for special occasions. In 
addition, they were to be exercised in writing and sing- 
ing, learn some simple Latin grammar lessons, and 
commit to memory a few Latin words every day. The 
Handbook resembled those used in older parish schools. 

In the second grade, they were to study ^Esop's fables, 
some writings of Erasmus, some of the epistles of St. 
Paul, make a grammatical study of Matthew's gospel, 
commit to memory a few psalms, and every day learn 



THE CLASSICAL SECONDARY SCHOOLS 175 

by heart some pithy Latin sentence. They were also to 
be exercised in music. 

In the third grade, music and grammar were to be 
continued ; Vergil, Ovid, and Cicero read ; versification, 
rhetoric, and logic studied ; and the pupils trained in 
'Latin conversation. 

Strangely enough, Greek and mathematics were ex- 
cluded. 

The most highly organized of all the early German 
secondary schools was John Sturm's. A study of it is 
important, because it won recognition as a standard 
school not only in the Protestant countries of the conti- 
nent, but in Great Britain as well, and exercised influ- 
ence accordingly. 

Sturm was born in Schleiden, Prussia, in 1507. He 
spent three years of his early life at a Hieronymian 
school, and afterwards studied and lectured 

John Sturm. 

at both Louvain and Paris. In religion he 
was a Calvinist, and was actively associated with the 
leaders of the Reformed confession. He was rector of 
the gymnasium at Strasburg from the time of its opening, 
in 1538, until 1583. He made it for many years the 
most famous secondary school in Europe. In 1578 sev- 
eral thousand students were in attendance. They came 
from all the different parts of Germany, from Portugal, 
Poland, Denmark, France, and England. Two hundred 
of them were of noble birth ; and of these, twenty-four 
were counts and barons, three were princes. The fame 
of the school won for Strasburg the name of New Athens. 
Sturm was an able statesman, and was in the employ 
of nearly all the rulers of Europe ; but he was also a 



176 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

thorough-going schoolman. He wrought out his courses 
of study with great accuracy and fulness of detail, and 
with remarkable co-ordination of the parts. 

When the organization of his gymnasium was com- 
pleted, the course extended over ten years, and the 
school was divided into ten classes, a class 

Character 

of the for each year. The lowest class was called 

ymnasium. ^^^q tenth ; and the highest, the first. Each 
class was subdivided into sections of ten, decuriae, and 
the first pupil of each decury was its decurio, decurion 
in English. 

Sturm clearly defined the aims of his school, and 
excellently subordinated the work to their attainment. 
The main objects were three, — piety, knowledge, and 
eloquence. The knowledge sought included the truths 
of the Christian religion and the Greek and Latin classics, 
together with the branches involved in their mastery. 
By the term eloquence he meant ability to write and 
speak, particularly the Latin tongue, with fluency, accu- 
racy, and elegance. The German language was studied 
only incidentally, while learning to read in the first year, 
and afterwards in the translation exercises. 

For the cultivation of piety there was religious instruc- 
tion every Saturday and Sunday throughout the course. 
The study of the catechism was continued 
through the first six years, the first three 
years in German and the last year in Latin. In the in- 
tervening years it was translated from German into Latin. 
From the sixth year till the end of the course the gospel 
lessons of the different Sundays were studied, and the 
epistles of St. Paul. 



THE CLASSICAL SECONDARY SCHOOLS 177 

Music was also taught, and the singing of hymns. 

In the Latin course, the study of grammar was dis- 
tributed over five years, the first two of which were 
devoted to declensions and conjugations. 

During the first four years the pupils were daily re- 
quired to commit to memory lists of Latin words used 
to express the facts of every-day life, and 

Latin. 

to read books called Neanisci, prepared by 
Sturm himself. These books contained dialogues in 
which were used the vocabulary and idioms of daily life. 
The object of these exercises was to prepare the pupils 
to use Latin as nearly as possible as if it were their 
native tongue. The Latin course embraced, besides, the 
letters and orations of Cicero, the Ecologues and jEneid 
of Vergil, the odes and epistles of Horace, Sallust, and 
the plays of Terence and Plautus. The portions of these 
authors studied were all carefully selected with reference 
to the growing knowledge and skill of the pupils. In 
the fifth year they commenced to memorize vocabularies 
of things foreign to them, and to study versification and 
mythology. The latter was required, because they that 
year began to study Vergil and short poems selected for 
them. 

The fifth-year students — that is, the sixth class — 
commenced the study of Greek. The whole 
course covered the reading of ^sop's fables, 
the New Testament, Pindar, Homer's Iliad and Odyssey 
and the orations of Demosthenes. 

In the ninth and tenth years, the students themselves 
had to expound the authors studied. 

In the latter part of the third year were commenced 

12 



178 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

exercises for the cultivation of style. At first these con- 
sisted in transposing the parts of good Latin phrases and 
other studies Constructing new ones. After that, themes 
and Exercises, bascd ou their studies were frequently 
written, Latin verses translated into German were again 
translated back into Latin verse, Latin exercises were 
translated into Greek and Greek into Latin, poems were 
composed, and letters written. 

Rhetoric and logic were studied the last two years. 
Arithmetic was taught, it seems, in the ninth year, and 
some astronomy and geometry in the tenth. 

As already indicated, the parts of the course were 
carefully correlated. The grammar lessons, mcluding 
figures of syntax, were followed by abundant 
and careful analysis of the literature read, 
and by exercises in construction, or style. The same is 
true of rhetoric. When the students studied logic, they 
were required to make logical analyses of the arguments 
in the orations of Cicero and Demosthenes. As soon 
as they were able to read Greek well, they read the 
gospel and epistle lessons in Greek. Their exercises in 
composition were based on their studies, and thus served 
as reviews. 

One other striking feature of the course must not go 
unmentioned. When the pupils had studied a play in 
Latin or Greek, they were compelled to commit it to 
memory and to act it. It was Sturm's desire that in the 
last year there should be presented one play every week 
by the decuries in turn. The acting of Latin plays was 
also introduced into the schools of England, and became 
one of the sources of the English drama. 



THE CLASSICAL SECONDARY SCHOOLS 179 

This course of Sturm's was the work of a master, but 
like the other great teachers of his time, he left it to 
men of a later day to recognize in a practical way the 
importance of the mother-tongue and to correlate the 
work of the school more closely otherwise with the de- 
mands of the life beyond its walls. 

It is interesting to note how the great historic move- 
ments of different ages put their stamp upon the courses 
of study in Sturm's gymnasium. The catechetical study 
of both Sturm's and Melanchthon's schools was a modi- 
fied heritage of the first Christian schools. It 

Origin of the 

had survived the vicissitudes of the inter- courses of 
vening centuries. The grammar, logic, and ®'^^*^^" 

rhetoric were derived from the later Roman schools 
through the medium of the monastic and cathedral 
schools. They were the venerable trivium. The Latin 
and Greek authors so enthusiastically studied were an 
enlargement of the trivial grammar course, and were 
the fruit of the Revival of Learning. The study of the 
gospels and the epistles of St. Paul were the contribution 
of the Reformation, and the singing of hymns received 
its new impetus from the same source because of the 
congregational singing which it re-created. 



XVII 

EXTENSION OF EDUCATIONAL 
ACTIVITY 

It was not alone in Saxony that there was a generous 
response to the appeal of Luther. Other states likewise 
undertook the establishment and supervision of schools, 
and quite a number of the large cities did the same. 
Among the most prominent of the latter were Hamburg, 
Nuremberg, Frankfort, Bremen, and Dantzic. 

In these schools the Latin was the recognized language 

of learning, but the demands of the mother-tongue were 

of such a character that they could not be entirely 

ignored. The children spoke German naturally and 

were obliged, in the methods of teaching 

Attention to ^ ' ° 

the Mother- tlicu iu voguc, to Icam Latin through the 
Tongue. medium of the German. The schools also 

gave religious instruction in the lowest grades, and this 
was necessarily in the native language to make it intelli- 
gible. Accordingly pupils were taught to read both 
languages. In the school plan of Wiirtemberg first, it 
seems, purely German elementary schools were provided 
for. This was promulgated in 1559. The same plan 
also directed the opening of writing schools in several 
of the cities, apparently similar to the writing, or burgher, 
schools of an earher time. 

Generally, however, the hope for the future of the 

180 



EXTENSION OF EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITY 181 

native languages was found in the parish schools of the 
peasant villages. It was not possible there to continue 
scholarship to the mastery of Latin, so Latin ordinarily 
was not attempted. The pupils were taught the cate- 
chism and singing, meeting once or twice a week for the 
purpose. Before the sixteenth century closed it was 
common to teach reading as well, and sometimes writing 
and arithmetic. The pastor was the teacher, or, more 
generally, the clerk, who thus was clerk, sexton, janitor, 
chorister, and pedagogue. The reading book other than 
the catechism was the New Testament. This also was 
the reading book of the growing German elementary 
schools in the larger towns. 

The growth of interest in the use of the native lan- 
guage was fostered by a number of men, and books 
encouraging it appeared from time to time. In 1573 
Albert Oelinger published a German grammar. Some 
time previous to this a French grammar had been pub- 
lished by the zealous reformer Pierre Ramus. 

These features of the new educational activity in Ger- 
many extended themselves into the neighboring Teutonic 
countries. 

The educational ferment intensified by the conditions 
attendant upon the Reformation extended to higher edu- 
cation. The universities of Edinburgh in Scotland, 
Leyden in Holland, Upsala in Sweden, were founded in 
the latter half of the sixteenth century, and a number 
more, Lutheran, Reformed, and Catholic, in Germany, 
Switzerland, and other countries. 

The most charming treatise on educational theory be- 
longing to this time is Roger Ascham's The Scholemaster. 



182 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

The work is all the pleasanter to the modern reader be- 
cause of the simplicity and quaintness of its style. As- 
RogerAscham cham became a master of arts in St. John's 
1515-1568. College, Cambridge, in 1537, and lectured 

there on Greek and mathematics. For a time he was 
the Greek tutor of the Princess Elizabeth. 

With rare good sense he gathered up what seemed to 
him best in the methods of Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Quin- 
tilian, and Sturm, and worked out a comprehensive 
theory of Latin teaching. He supplemented it with a 
theory of discipline that reveals the lovable spirit of 
the man, and was in striking and pleasing contrast with 
the rigors that then prevailed in the school-room. 
He pleaded, like Luther and Zwingli, for the physical 
training of young men. Riding, tilting, shooting^ 
running, vaulting, wrestling, swimming, hunting, and 
tennis he deemed a necessary part of a gentleman's 
training. 

After learning the parts of speech and their proper 
putting together, the pupils were to be exercised mainly 
His Latin ^^ doublc translation and imitation. As was 
Method. the custom also in the Jesuit schools, the 

teacher first translated the passage to be studied and 
familiarized the pupil with the translation by repeating 
it. He was to do the same with the analysis and parsing, 
requiring the pupil to repeat the work done. The pupil 
was then to write out the translation, without help, in 
a book kept for the purpose ; and, after an interval of 
an hour or more, translate it back into Latin. This 
translation was to be placed side by side with the origi- 
nal Latin by the teacher and criticized by comparison. 



EXTENSION OF EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITY 183 

The imitation was to consist in exercises written in imi- 
tation of the style or matter of some master. 

Ascham advised the supplementing of these transla- 
tions and imitations with the writing of para- q^^^^. 
phrases, metaphrases, and epitomes of good Exercises. 
selections, and by training in declamation. 

The pupils were to be taught with proper exercises 
not only the general meanings of words, but also their spe- 
cific meanings in the passages studied, their synonyms, 
their opposites, the idiomatic phrases in which they occur, 
and the words expressing variations of the thought. 

The rules of grammar were to be studied in con- 
nection with the analysis and parsing. The study of 
grammar was thus to be made practical, pleasant, and 
thorough. 



XVIII 
THE JESUITS 

Just as the Reformation called into existence an edu- 
cational activity conforming in its general character to 
the fundamental ideas that gave life to the movement 
and to the circumstances of its development, so the 
Counter-Reformation gave rise to educational efforts 
peculiar to itself in energy, aims, and methods. The 
most prominent features of the Counter-Reformation 
were the organization and the labors of the Society of 
Jesus. The educational activity of the Counter-Refor- 
mation was assumed by this Society and by other re- 
ligious orders which, in this respect at least, closely 
imitated it. The Society and its schools took their 
character from the personality of their founder, Ignatius 
Loyola. 

Loyola was born on his father's estate in the Basque 
province, Spain, in 1491, eight years after Martin Luther, 
whose labors and their results he was destined to combat 
so vigorously. Early in life he chose for himself the 
Loyola's Early profcssion of amis. In the siege of Pampe- 
Life. luna, when the French had battered a hole 

in the wall, Loyola heroically threw himself into the 
breach to keep the invaders out of the city. A ball 
shattered the rock by which he stood, striking also and 
breaking one of his legs, while a splinter of rock severely 
injured the other. 

184 



THE JESUITS 185 

He was confined to bed a long time, only to find at 
the end that the limb had been imperfectly set. He 
determined to have it broken again and reset. The 
healing process was slower than before. 

He whiled away the tedium of his confinement by 
reading romances, of which, in the ardor of his nature, 
he was very fond. At last the supply was exhausted 
and he read the Lives of the Saioits^ the only remain- 
ing literature to which he had access. It transformed 
the man. With the same chivalrous enthusiasm with 
which he had entered upon military life, he determined 
now to devote himself to the service of religion. As 
soon as he was able he proceeded to the monastery of 
Montserrat, and hanging up his arms there, he left the 
monastery coarsely clad and barefooted. 

After serving the poor and the sick in the Manresa Hos- 
pital for a time, he made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. 
He was discouraged by the authorities from engaging in 
mission work there and returned to Spain, entering 
the grammar class at Alcala at the age of thirty-three. 
His efforts to do unauthorized mission work preparation for 
while a student brought him into so many work, 

conflicts with the church authorities that he finally re- 
sorted to Paris to complete his studies. He there at- 
tached to himself six companions, the most famous of 
whom was Francis Xavier. In 1534 they took a solemn 
oath in church to renounce all their goods by a certain 
date and proceed to the Holy Land to do mission work. 
This was the beginning of the Society of Jesus, in all 
probability the most compactly organized body of men 
the world has ever known. Increased in numbers 



186 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

the Society received its charter from the pope in 
1540. 

A war with the Turks prevented the intended mission 
work in Palestine, but Loyola found abundant oppor- 
tunity to employ the Society in similar work in other 
countries, and especially in the work of the Counter- 
Reformation. In our own country some of the most 
heroic exploration and missionary effort among the 
Indians was performed by Jesuit priests. The most 
important work of the Society consisted in the estab- 
lishment and conduct of schools. 

It is well to study the organization of the Society, 
because the organization of its school work had all the 
general characteristics of the organization of the Society 
for other purposes. Everywhere was manifested the 
Organization military training of its founder. Absolute 
of the Society, obedience was required of all the members. 
A French Jesuit upon receiving an order to do mission 
work among the Iroquois in America after all the former 
missionaries had been killed, simply said, "Ibo, sed 
non redibo," — "I will go, but I shall not return." He 
went and fulfilled his prophecy by being burned at the 
stake. 

The head of the Order received the title of General. 
Within the limits of the constitution his will was abso- 
lute. The whole field of activity was divided into prov- 
inces, with a " Provincial" at the head. Every month 
the Provincial was required to make report of the char- 
acter, conduct, and position of each member in his juris- 
diction ; and every quarter the superiors of houses, col- 
legiate and others, did the same. All this is true, too, 



THE JESUITS 187 

of the Society as reorganized after its suppression in 
1773. The thoroughness of organization of Sturm's 
individual school was characteristic of the Jesuit schools 
as a system, giving them wonderful effectiveness within 
the limits of their aims and methods. 

The energy of the Jesuits was so great that one hun- 
dren and fifty years after the death of Loyola they had 
seven hundred and sixty-nine collegiate and growth of the 
university houses of education. In all these schools, 

institutions there were at the lowest estimate more than 
two hundred thousand students. The work of these 
Jesuit teachers was strictly confined by the constitution 
to secondary and higher instruction, the latter embracing 
courses in philosophy and theology. 

The whole system of education both with respect to 
teaching and to the management of schools was carefully 
elaborated in the generalship of Aquaviva. After years 
of study, consultation, inquiry among teachers in the 
Order, investigation, and revision, a work was prepared 
covering the whole ground, and published in ^j^^ J^^^^^ 
1599. It is known as the Eatio atque Insti- studiorum. 
tutio Studiorum Socletatis Jesu, — The System and Code of 
Studies of the Society of Jesus. It was developed along 
the lines laid down in the constitution of Loyola. It 
was revised about 1830 to adapt it to modern condi- 
tions. What is further said concerning Jesuit education 
presents it as it was prior to the suppression. 

To the secondary course pupils were admitted when 
about fourteen, and they completed it in from The secondary 
five to seven years. It closely resembled course. 

Sturm's, and was divided into five grades as follows : 



188 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

1. Lower Grammar. 

2. Middle Grammar. 

3. Upper Grammar. 

4. Humanity. 

5. Rlietoric. 

One year was devoted to each grade except the last, 
which usually occupied two, sometimes three years. 
Greek was studied in all the grades. During the three 
years of grammar study such portions of literature were 
studied as might be within the comprehension of the 
pupils, mainly selections from Cicero in Latin and ^sop 
in Greek. To the classical authors studied in the ad- 
vanced grades were added the works of Christian Greeks 
like St. Chrysostom and Gregory Nazianzen. The 
teachers were directed to distribute the elements of 
mathematics and instruction in history and geography 
through the course as they found it convenient. The 
work in these studies was not outlined in the Ratio. 

The higher instruction included a course of two or 
Superior three years in philosophy and another in 

Instruction. tlicology, coveriug from four to six years. 

The philosophical course included logic, ethics, psy- 
chology, mathematics, and what was then known of 
physical science. 

The theological course included, in addition to theology, 
church history, canon law. Sacred Scripture, and Hebrew. 

The classes of the classical course were divided into 
Class decuriae as in Sturm's school, and the office 

Organization, of the decuriou was made a responsible and 
honorable one. 

When a pupil was admitted to a class, there was 



THE JESUITS 189 

selected for him a rival, who was expected to point out 
the mistakes of his exercises and debate with him the 
propositions he made. He performed the same office 
for his rival. For certain exercises, too, the class was 
divided into rival camps called respectively Rome and 
Carthage. 

There were three main features in the Jesuit method 
of teaching, — the prelection, the repetition, and the dis- 
putation. 

The method of the different forms of prelection was 
carefully detailed in the Ratio. The prelection of a 
Cicero lesson is here given to illustrate. First, the 
teacher sketched briefly the meaning of the 

linn The Prelection. 

passage. Secondly, he translated the passage 
literally, preserving the order of the words in the original. 
Thirdly, he gave the grammatical analysis. Fourthly, he 
explained the meanings of the separate words and figures 
of speech, giving equivalents, both in Latin and the ver- 
nacular. Fifthly, he dictated the more elegant forms of 
expression to be committed to memory and used in the 
written exercises of the students. Last of all, he re- 
peated the translation once or twice. 

For most of the classes there was added also another 
feature known as the erudition. The teacher added 
whatever of history, geography, or any other form of 
knowledge the passage might suggest, or which would 
explain or ornament it. It was mainly in this incidental 
way that history and geography were taught. 

After the prelection, one or more of the pupils were 
called upon to reproduce all or parts of it. Rules or 
passages to be committed to memory were first recited 



190 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

by the decurions to the teacher, and afterwards, in his 
presence, by the other pupils in the decuriae to the de- 
rpjjg curions. There was also usually a short re- 

Repetition, view at the beginning of the next lesson. 

To insure thoroughness, one day of the week was 
devoted entirely to repetition ; and, in the lower classes, 
the work of the second half of the year was a repetition 
of that of the first. 

The work thus far outlined was for the pupil the 
merest form of memory work. Even the grammatical 
analysis, as stated, was a pure memory grind. But there 
^j^g was added to the ordinary review a repetition 

Disputation. of a higher type. It consisted of different 
forms of disputation, and could be made an intellectual 
exercise of high order. 

In the lower classes these were " concertations " be- 
tween rivals or camps or selected champions, sometimes 
one pupil being pitted against many. The concertations 
were debates on points in grammar, rhetoric, poetry, or 
on the opinions of writers. There were umpires and 
judges appointed, and prizes were awarded to the victors. 

The disputations of the students in the philosophical 
and theological courses were conducted with much for- 
mality at comparatively frequent intervals. To give them 
as much dignity and life as possible, professors and stu- 
dents of other classes were invited to be present. The 
professor in -charge of the class kept the debate within 
limits, and saw that it came to a defmite conclusion. 

Students in the classical course whose scholarship 
entitled them to the honor, were elected members of 
voluntary associations for study called academies. The 



THE JESUITS 191 

voting power was vested in those already members. 
The exercises of the academies consisted of recitations, 
debates, and prelections, the last either origi- 
nal or repeated from the class-room. 

Almost daily the classical students were required to 
write themes. These were either original Latin composi- 
tions, or translations of exercises dictated by q^j^^^ Features 
the teacher. At the end of every year there °^ t^e work. 
were long and rigid examinations prepared for by careful 
reviews. 

The lessons were short, and the work was made as 
pleasant as possible by the teachers. The aim was sim- 
ple and definite, and the results sought were thoroughly 
accomplished. These were ability to use the Latin lan- 
guage with ease and elegance, and indoctrination in the 
philosophical and theological opinions accepted by the 
Order. 

The discipline was made as mild as possible. Cor- 
poral punishment was seldom resorted to, and then 
turned over to a special official not a member of the 
Order. 

In addition to the honors and prizes already men- 
tioned, there were many other prizes for class standing 
and special achievements. These were intended for out- 
side students. A careful review of the class work reveals 
the fact that one of the principal features of its life and 
management was a carefully devised system of emulation. 
Emulation was, indeed, carried to such ex- 
tremes that, apparently, it must have ob- 
scured the true ends of study and cultivated improper 
feeling among the students. 



192 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Much attention, naturally, was devoted to the religious 
training of the students. Every morning they were to 
Religious ^^^^^ mass, and every lesson was to begin 
Exercises. "with the sigu of the cross or a prayer. The 
students were urged to confess and receive the Holy 
Communion frequently. 

The teachers, of course, were members of the Order, 
except when courses in law or medicine were added. 
Almost without exception, Jesuits who had 
completed the philosophic course were re- 
quired to teach in the lower course for from four to six 
years before they commenced to study theology. To 
prepare for the teaching, they were required to take 
special reviews for a time and to give prelections for 
some months under proper supervision. This was the 
beginning of the history of special training for the art of 
teaching. 

The professors of the higher courses were selected 
from among the graduates of eminent ability. 

In general, the foregoing description of the methods 
of teaching and management apply to the Jesuit schools 
of to-day. 

The Jesuit schools had several great advantages. The 
teaching body was thorough in its discipline and organi- 
zation, it was well trained for the work, and 
the teaching was a matter of religious devo- 
tion. This, too, made the teaching cheap. Tuition, in 
fact, was gratuitous even to outside students ; and, in 
case of poverty, board also was furnished them when 
funds were sufficient. Candidates for the Order were 
maintained free of cost. 



XIX 

INNOVATORS OF THE SIXTEENTH 
AND SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES 

The classical learning had scarcely established itself in 
the universities and new secondary schools when there 
arose strong men who severely criticised both its aims 
and its methods and demanded a different type of educa- 
tion. Their criticisms and demands received but little 
attention from teachers at first, but they increased in 
force and volume, and at length commenced a slow 
educational revolution. 

One cause of this reaction is to be sought in one of 
the noblest results of the New Learning itself. In giving 
birth to the new literatures of Europe it pre- 
pared for its own overshadowing and loss of 
importance. These new literatures were so vigorous 
and modern, so tense with the new and exuberant life 
that stirred in the hearts and brains of men, that they 
not only won respect for themselves but also excited a 
proud enthusiasm. They gave form and dignity to our 
modern languages. 

Another reason for it was the long series of geographi- 
cal discoveries beginning with the voyages of Columbus 
to the New World. Closely allied to these were the 
efforts at colonization and the new and rapidly increasing 
commercial and industrial activity. These events could 
not fail to turn the minds of men away from the themes 

13 193 



194 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

that had before engaged them. They gave new scope to 
human thoughts and ambitions. 

One of the most potent causes of all lay in the scien- 
tific activity which had its foreshadowing in the work 
and discoveries of the Franciscan monk, Roger Bacon, 
in the thirteenth century. It had its real beginning in 
the sixteenth century, and in the seventeenth claimed a 
long list of intelligent and successful inventors and dis- 
coverers. In 1609 Galileo first turned a telescope to 
the heavens, and about the same time Kepler worked 
out the laws of planetary movements. Harvey dis- 
covered the circulation of the blood in 1616. In the 
middle of the century Guericke invented the air-pump ; 
and sixteen years before its close Isaac Newton dis- 
covered the laws of gravitation. 

It is very evident that the training admired by the 
devotees of the New Learning and prized by the philoso- 
phers who learned from Aristotle and by the physicians 
who followed Galen would not continue to suffice for 
the new writers, business men, inventors, and scientists. 

Faint indications of the new ideas are to be found in 
the pedagogical writings of Zwingli and Luther ; but there 
Beginning of ^^ ^ strouger and more definite prophecy in 
the New Ideas, the Gargantua of Rabelais, a contemporary 
of theirs. The Gargantua is a work of coarse humor, 
and abounds in satire aimed at monks, though Rabelais 
was brought up a monk, and at the scholastic learning. 
It champions, in places, the revived classic learning and 
anticipates many features of later education. It advo- 
cates a fair acquaintance with mathematics, history, 
and civil law ; a study of nature by direct observation ; 



THE INNOVATORS 195 

and an acquaintance with the arts and trades gained by 
visiting workshops. 

The first positive voice raised in protest against the 
humanistic education prevailing at the time was a vigor- 
ous one. It was that of the brilhant French Montaigne. 
essayist Montaigne, He was not a school- 1533-1592. 
man, and wrought out no comprehensive scheme for 
organized school work. The actual working plan pro- 
posed by him was to remove the boy from the too ten- 
der solicitude of the parents and from the confinement 
and harsh discipline of the school-room, and place him 
under the guidance and training of a tutor. It was very 
mu'ch like that more fully developed by Rousseau about 
two centuries later, and involved the same fatal errors. 

Montaigne, however, clearly saw the radical defects in 
the school work of his day, and as clearly stated them. 
He also, with considerable defmiteness, laid down most 
of the lines along which the modern revolution in educa- 
tion has so slowly developed. Though he accomplished 
no great changes in the educational practice of his own 
time, his writings were extensively read, and his influ- 
ence upon later reformers, especially upon Locke and 
Rousseau was very great. 

Education consisted chiefly in forcing into the minds 
of the pupils what was frequently little more than the 
form of a body of literature accepted as a finality in 
style and substance, a sort of ne plus ultra, criticism of the 
" Teachers," Montaigne said, " are incessantly schools. 

thundering into the ears of their pupils as if pouring into 
a funnel.'' "They undertake to give the same learning 
to a body of pupils differing widely in temperament and 



196 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

capability. Thus only two or three out of a large num- 
ber realize good results." 

The learning acquired by the few, in his estimation, 
lacked life because it was a mere memory reproduction. 
It evidenced lack of assimilation. It failed to prepare 
pupils for the practical demands of life, and to develop 
in them sound judgment and manly independence, ren- 
dering them instead timid and slavish. It sacrificed 
many of their best interests to a language no longer in 
use among the body of the people. 

The reforms proposed in Montaigne's pedagogical 
writings may be summed up as follows : 
Proposed ^- PupHs should be taught first their 

Reforms. mothcr-tonguc, — the language which they 

use with their neighbors and in the practical affairs of life. 

2. They should be led to deal directly with things, — 
with such things as are adapted to their capacities and 
needs. 

The study of things is technically known as realism, 
in contrast with humanism, the study of the classic lan- 
guages and literatures. 

3. They should be trained by exercise to the skilful 
practice of an art, and be led to the development of 
independent judgment. 

4. They should study history to bring them into in- 
spiring contact with the great men of all time. 

5. They should learn language by use rather than by 
grammatical rule. 

This proposition came out of his own experience. 
When a mere babe he was taken out of his mother's 
arms and placed in the care of a learned German who 



THE INNOVATORS 197 

knew no French. The German tutor and his assistants 
were allowed to use only Latin. Even the parents 
learned enough Latin to speak with the boy in that 
tongue, and he knew no other language until seven years 
of age. He spoke Latin so fluently and correctly that 
when placed at school even his learned teachers were 
timid in their use of the language with him. Judged, 
however, by the reforms which he advocated, he, no 
doubt, felt that too much had been sacrificed for his 
Latin. 

Lessons, he claimed, should be practised rather than 
recited. It should be especially noticed whether the 
pupils manifest good judgment in their un- General 

dertakings, kindness and justice in their ac- Propositions. 
tions, intelligence in their speech, fortitude in sickness, 
moderation in pleasure, and order in the arrangement 
of their affairs. 

" It is not a soul," he said, " not a body, which we 
educate, but a man. Soul and body must be trained 
together." Using a figure borrowed from Cicero, he 
said they must be trained together like two horses 
hitched to the same pole. The body must be hardened 
to the endurance of sweat, cold, wind, and sun, and kept 
from softness in the matter of clothing, food, and drink. 
The muscles must be made strong as steel, and the body 
active by exercise in running, wrestling, riding, dancing, 
and fighting. 

It remained for an Englishman to give to realism its 
greatest impetus and most definite direction. The man 
was Sir Francis Bacon. He had a large measure of 
that happy combination of the practical and the philo- 



198 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

sophical in the temper of his mind which has character- 
ized so many of his illustrious countrymen. Early in 
Francis Bacon. ^^^^ ^^ bccamc impressed with the idea that 
1561-1626. he was born to a great destiny, — ^the destiny 
of usefulness to humanity. At the age of sixteen he 
left Cambridge University, where he had studied three 
years, dissatisfied with the course and irreconcilably 
hostile to the Aristotelian philosophy. 

Late in life, when he had with his venality made a sad 
wreck of an extended and prominent political career, he 
undertook to reconstruct the sciences. His object was 
to give to them the usefulness which they seemed to him 
to lack utterly. When modern science was in its infancy, 
he made himself the great apostle of observation, experi- 
ment, and induction. So extensively and deeply did he 
impress men of his own and after-time that he was until 
recently regarded as the father of inductive philosophy. 

Bacon was a master of vigorous and graceful prose, 
and nearly everything he wrote was intended to form an 
integral part of a great work which he had planned, or 
Bacon's ^^ some measurc supplement it. The work, 

instauratio. Instaurotio Magna, was never completed. 
Two volumes of it, however, made him a powerful 
factor in education. These were The Advancement of 
Learning and the Novum Organum. In them are set 
forth most completely his philosophic theory, and it is 
his general theory that has been of most service. What 
he says directly of the work of the school is compara- 
tively valueless. 

He commanded men to investigate, experiment, and 
verify. He asked them to study nature closely in order 



THE INNOVATORS 199 

to learn the exact truth, and thus be enabled to make 
themselves more useful. He considered truth and utility 
ultimately the same. "Turn away," he exclaimed, 
" from the shallow springs of traditional natural science, 
and draw from the unfathomable and ever freshly flowing 
fountain of creation. Live in Nature with active senses ; 
ponder it in your thoughts, and learn to comprehend 
it, for thus you will be able also to control it. Power 
increases with knowledge." 

The character of Bacon's philosophy is perhaps best 
indicated in the first and third aphorisms of the Novum 
Organum. 

1. "Man, the minister and interpreter of Nature, can 
act and understand in as far as he has, either in fact or 
in thought, observed the order of Nature : ^.^^^^ 

more he can neither know nor do." Aphorisms. 

3. " There are two ways of searching after and discov- 
ering truth, — the one, from sense and particulars, rises 
directly to the most general axioms (propositions), and, 
resting upon these principles and their unshaken truth, 
finds out intermediate axioms, and this is the method in 
use ; but the other raises axioms from sense and particu- 
lars by a continued and gradual ascent, till at last it 
arrives at the most general axioms, which is the true 
way, but hitherto untried." 

Bacon, indeed, proclaimed a defective philosophy. 
He failed to work out the method by which his great 
contemporaries, Galileo and Kepler, made Bacon's 

their discoveries ; but the spirit of his writ- usefulness, 
ings was in harmony with their labors. He, as they 
could not, caught the ear of the great body of intelligent 



200 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

men, and became the chief agent of his time in accom- 
phshing a revolution in human thought. If for no other 
reason, he would deserve a high place among famous 
men for this : that he helped in no slight degree to give 
character to the pedagogic activity of Comenius, the 
greatest educator of the seventeenth century. 

The actual school workers followed close upon the 

heels of the philosophical essayists. Richard Mulcaster 

was the first of them. He was famous in 

Richard 

Mulcaster. his day because of the distinguished scholars 
1530-1611. -j^g -^^^ prepared for the universities and be- 
cause of his educational works. One of these was the 
Mementarie, a treatise on primary education. Though 
head-master of a Latin school, he advocated in it the 
careful teaching of the English tongue. 

He commences his advocacy of English with a some- 
what timid apology, but the pride and enthusiasm of the 
Elizabethan era was in him and had to burst forth. 
"Why should not all of us write English?" he asks. 
"I do not think," he continues, "that any language is 
better able to utter all arguments either with more pith 
or greater plainness than our English tongue." He tells 
how it had been enriched by English chivalry, wars, and 
trade, and how it had been carried over sea and land by 
English enterprise and daring. 

The first notable experiment, however, in educational 
revolution was made in Germany. The leader of it was 
a rather extraordinary man named Wolfgang Ratich. 

Ratich came from Wilster in the north of Germany. 
He was thoroughly educated in preparation for the Lu- 
theran ministry, but found himself unfitted for preaching 



THE INNOVATORS 201 

by some defect in speech, so he continued his univer- 
sity life. While at Amsterdam he elaborated a new 
scheme of education. For a time, like an edu- Ratich 

cational Columbus, he went from university 1571-1635. 
to university and from court to court seeking moral and 
financial support for his plans. In 1612 he memorialized 
the Electoral Diet, and some of its princes appointed a 
committee of eminent scholars to investigate his system. 

On the strength of their report Ratich was summoned 
to reform the schools of Augsburg. His work there 
failed ; but his friends did not desert him, and he at last 
found an able patron in Prince Lewis of Anhalt-Kothen. 

The timidity which appears in Mulcaster's advocacy 
of English in no way reveals itself in the Ratich's 

propositions and claims of Ratich. Timidity claims, 

was not one of his striking characteristics. He declared 
that with his method he could, — 

1. Teach Hebrew, Greek, and Latin in at least half 
the time ordinarily required. 

2. That he could teach the arts and sciences in Ger- 
man, French, or any other language. 

3. That he would introduce and peacefully maintain 
uniformity in language, government, and religion. 

The apparent impudence of these bombastic claims was 
the na'ive impudence of an enthusiast carried away by a 
great idea whose limitations he could not measure. 

The second proposition deserves some attention. At 
that time Latin stood between the sciences and the stu- 
dent. Science was taught from books, and the books 
were Latin. He who had not mastered Latin could not 
study the sciences. Ratich proposed to remove the 



202 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

barrier, and, apparently, to teach the sciences themselves 

instead of definitions of them. 

The claims of the man, unsupported by something 

better, would undoubtedly have failed to secure for him 

the endorsement of the learned committees that ex- 

„. amined his plans. He had much more. His 

ms ^ 

Fundamental methods of teaching he asserted to be in 
ncip es. conformity with certain principles which he 
had formulated. These won the committees, and they 
were an important contribution to the development of 
pedagogy. Some of them are still considered vital and 
fundamental, and, with proper limitations, more may be 
made very useful to the teacher. They mark the man 
as possessed of something closely akin to genius. 
The most important of them are the following : 

1 . Everything must be done in the order of nature. 

2. One thing at a time and often repeated. 

3. Everything first in the mother-tongue. 

4. Everything without compulsion. 

5. Nothing to be learned by rote. 

6. First the matter, then the rules and principles. 

7. Everything through experience and investigation. 
He with truth assumed that the mind has a certain 

order in which it comes to an understanding of things. 
When this is not observed in the order of teaching, com- 
pulsion is necessary, and the effort is injurious to the 
pupil. He demanded study first in the mother-tongue, 
because then the attention can be fixed upon the thing 
to be studied instead of on the language in which it is 
expressed. Learning by rote was the radical vice of all 
the old systems of teaching. The tendency among 



THE INNOVATORS 203 

teachers has always been to exalt the mere fact of know- 
ing, and to assume that when a pupil can recite a defini- 
tion he knows the thing. Most of his principles were 
equally sound within the scope of their application, but 
some of them were serious pedagogical blunders. 

Possibly no educational experimenter ever had better 
opportunity to give his system a fair trial. Prince Lewis 
started him well. He gave him a printing-house 
equipped to prepare text-books in six different languages, 
so that his books might be properly adapted to his plans. 
He was furnished a corps of teachers pledged to secrecy. 
The school was opened, 1619, with four hun- Ratich-s 

dred and thirty pupils, the number of boys school. 

and girls being nearly equal. Everything promised well ; 
but the experiment so auspiciously begun soon ended 
in disastrous failure, and poor Ratich was put to jail for 
promising more than he could accomplish. He w^as 
released only after publishing a confession of this. 

The study of the school is interesting and profitable 
even in its failure. It collapsed because of three things. 
In the first place, Ratich lacked tact. The people were 
Reformed, and he was a radical Lutheran. As is the 
case with many more, his plan for establishing religious 
uniformity was to get all people to agree with him. In 
this instance there were too many other people. Sec- 
ondly, the teaching strictly applied such fallacious prin- 
ciples as one thing at a time and often repeated. The 
pupils repeated many things to death. Last of all, 
Ratich sadly misapplied his correct principles, radically 
violating every one of them. 

There were six grades. In the first three only the 



204 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

mother-tongue was used and taught. Latin was taken 
up m the fourth, and Greek in the sixth. Besides the 
language teaching, there was religious instruc- 
tion, and training in arithmetic and singing. 

The teacher of the first grade was to form the lan- 
guage of the pupils by means of conversation exercises 
and the repetition of selected Scriptural passages. To 
prepare for the reading lessons, the pupils were taught 
the alphabet. The resemblance of the shapes of the let- 
ters to familiar forms was pointed out when the teacher 
printed the letters on the board. The children were re- 
quired to copy them. All this tended to fix the forms 
rapidly and definitely on the mind. It showed that 
Ratich had at least some of the true teaching instinct. 
After the alphabet was learned, the teacher formed sylla- 
bles, pronouncing them as he wrote them. 

The first reading book was Genesis. The teacher first 
read the whole book to the pupils. He read each chap- 
Readingand ter twice ovcr in immediate succession. As 
Grammar. he read, the pupils followed in their books 
with eyes and fingers. After the whole book had thus 
been read by the teacher, he again read the first chapter. 
Immediately after, the pupils read it, each taking about 
four lines. When they stuck, he gave them the correct 
pronunciation. 

They used the same book in the study of grammar. 
The teacher first selected a lesson in the grammar text, 
read and explained it to the pupils. Then they read it. 
After that the teacher took a portion of Genesis and read 
until he came to a word or phrase to which the gram- 
mar lesson applied. He stopped and showed all the 



THE INNOVATORS 205 

applications and gave the declensions and conjugations. 
The reading and applications were afterwards repeated 
by the pupils. 

The first book in Latin was not a grammar. It was 
not even a Latin book, but a translation of Terence. 
This was read over several times. Then the teacher 
translated the play word for word, repeating each half- 
hour's reading. The next time over, the teacher read 
and translated one-half hour and the pupils ^^y^ 

repeated the exercise the next. So they TeacWng. 
worked on to the end of the play. Then the pupils 
began in the beginning and read and translated the play 
themselves, the teacher only correcting. ■ 

The method of teaching Latin grammar was the same 
as for the German. After the pupils had read Terence, 
they and the teacher read the lessons in the Latin gram- 
mar and applied them to Terence. It is clear that this 
experimenter came near to discovering a sensible method 
of teaching grammar. 

Ratich no doubt thought that by taking the pupils over 
the course indicated above they would naturally catch the 
spirit of the work and learn enough elements to enable 
them to become skilful in reading, grammar, and Latin, 
and that the principles he had formulated would thus 
be realized. He failed to see that the long-continued 
series of recitations by the teachers to the silent and 
watchful pupils was for the latter a very 
unnatural proceeding and tended to smother 
all the spirit of investigation that might be in them. 
The work thus violated whatever was sound in his prin- 
ciples. Aside from a few features in the reading and 



206 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

grammar exercises, it was a long-drawn duplicate of 
what was done in schools generally, — the teacher worked 
out the lessons and the pupils remembered what they 
could of the teachers recitations. The other schools 
had the advantage in that the teacher's recitation periods 
in them were shorter and the pupil's repetitions more 
frequent. 

After the failure of the Kothen experiment, Oxenstiem, 

the great Swedish minister, sought an interview with 

Ratich in the hope of employing him to reform the school 

work of Sweden. As Oxenstiem afterwards told Co- 

menius, Ratich answered his questions by 

Ratich's End. i . . , . , i , , 

placmg m his hands a quarto volume con- 
taining an account of his methods. The minister was 
convinced of their impracticable character and refused to 
adopt them. Ratich never again got an opportunity to 
repeat his experiment, and died in 1635, a disappointed 
man. 

Among the men of the seventeenth century active 

in educational reform, the figure of Comenius towers 

pre-eminent. He was born in Comna, Moravia, in 1591. 

The sixteenth century contributed much to 

John Amos 

Comenius. the Uplift of humanity, and it almost seemed 
i59i-i6a. ^g -^ ^YiQ spirit of all that was most exalted 
in it had entered the soul of Comenius at his birth to be 
carried by him into the next. Yet the story of his life 
is a sad one, and its pathos is all the greater because the 
deepest of his sorrows were the sorrows of his whole 
people. 

Comenius was left an orphan early in life. His educa- 
tion was sadly neglected until he was well grown. He 



THE INNOVATORS 207 

belonged to a religious organization known as the Mora- 
vian, or Bohemian, Brethren. At the age of twenty-four 
he was ordained a minister in it. He had scarcely been 
settled in a pastorate at Fulneck with his young wife and 
a little child when a vigorous effort was made to sup- 
press the Brethren. The Spaniards plundered Fulneck 
in 1621. Comenius lost his whole library and nearly 
everything else he possessed. Soon after, he was bereft 
of wife and child. 

For a time he found refuge from the religious persecu- 
tion in the mountains of Bohemia. In 1628 there was 
issued a decree that all people who did not confess the 
Catholic faith must leave the country. In the midst of 
a severe winter thirty thousand families left Bohemia. 
With many other exiles he then sought refuge in Poland. 
He made his home in Lissa, and here, when he was an 
old man, another great misfortune came upon him. The 
Brethren had incurred the anger of the Poles, and the 
latter burned the city. In the conflagration Comenius 
lost his whole library again and nearly all his manu- 
scripts. The loss of the latter well-nigh broke his heart, 
for in the course of his busy life he had written more 
than a hundred works. 

At Lissa, Comenius was elected bishop of his church. 
He continued in the office until the day of his death. 
In fact, he was the last bishop of the old offices and 
brotherhood. When he passed away, most Labors. 

of its scattered members connected themselves with Re- 
formed and Lutheran churches. It was not, however, 
as minister or bishop that he did his greatest work, it 
was as teacher and writer of pedagogical works. Before 



208 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

he entered the ministry he had taught at Preirau, in 
Moravia. He also taught at Fulneck and in the gymna- 
sium at Lissa. For a number of years he was rector of 
the gymnasium. 

However much his education had been neglected early 
in life, he made up for it in later years with his untiring 
industry. He made himself familiar with all the peda- 
gogical theories of his own and ancient times, and put 
himself in touch by correspondence and otherwise with 
the progressive educators of his day. He was most 
deeply influenced by the work of Ratich, Bacon, and a 
Spanish educator named Vives. When, after a time, he 
began to write on educational subjects, he had back 
of what he said considerable practical experience and 
a full knowledge of what had been said and done by 
others. 

He was the first man to write a treatise that covered 
the whole field of education in a scientific manner and 
was imbued with a genuine modern spirit. For the in- 
telligent reader of to-day almost every page has some 
surprise because of the way in which it presents and 
discusses questions that now occupy the attention of 
educators as being vital and revolutionary. 

Comenius called his great work Didactica Magna. In 
a letter to a friend he tells why he chose the title. His 
The Didactica explanation shoAvs plainly the broad differ- 
Magna. eucc bctwecn the aims of modern education 

and those which characterized the educational activity 
of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. " For I had 
undertaken," he says, "not a didactic of painting or 
drawing, nor of grammar, logic, or any other part of 



THE INNOVATORS 209 

learning, but of life, and for this reason I called it the 
great didactic." 

Many parts of the book now sound strange. It be- 
gins with a benediction for all who are responsible for 
the proper rearing of children. The treatise has its 
setting in a theological discussion of the moral and intel- 
lectual condition of man, his relation to lower existences, 
to his fellow-men, to eternity, and to God, This is the 
logical basis of the work, which takes many of its noblest 
features, too, from the special religious faith which Co- 
menius professed. 

The technical name of the Moravian organization was 
" Unitas Fratrum," — Unity of the Brethren. The revived 
church for a time formed communal societies, ^nity of the 
In the old Moravian cemeteries in America Brethren, 
men, women, and children, white and Indian, are buried 
side by side with reference to sex and maturity, but irre- 
spective of family, wealth, or social position. The tomb- 
stones are all alike, except in size, and are laid flat on 
the graves so one cannot tower above the others or vie 
with them in ornamentation because of family pride. 
Side by side, one great family, they await the resurrection 
day, preaching in the solemn, simple unity of their burial 
the doctrine which they had learned from the Great 
Teacher, the brotherhood of the race. 

In this Unitas Fratrum lies the key to what belongs 
very particularly to Comenius in his theory of elementary 
education. According to it, all children, 

'^ ' ' Theory of 

girls and boys, poor and rich, are to attend Elementary 
the elementary school, working out the Education. 
problems of school life together and receiving the same 

14 



210 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

training for the future. "I desire," he said, "a general 
culture for all who are born human beings unto every- 
thing that is human. They must, therefore, be educated 
together, as far as this is possible, in order that they may 
mutually inspire, animate, and stimulate one another. 
I intend that they be educated to all virtues, especially 
to moderation, harmony, and willingness to perform 
mutual service. They must, therefore, not be separated 
too early, and the opportunity must not be given to a 
certain number to regard themselves with complacency 
and others with contempt." In Europe, where the 
popular elementary schools are separated from the sec- 
ondary schools along social lines, this ideal has not yet 
been realized. That has been done in America alone, 
and, in the best portions of the country, in a grander 
way than Comenius himself could anticipate. 

Comenius regarded educational activity as ending with 
the twenty-fourth year. He divided this time into four 
Educational perfods of six years each. The first period 
Periods. he assigned to the mother school ; the sec- 

ond, to the elementary school, mother-tongue school he 
called it ; the third, to the Latin school, or gymnasium ; 
and the fourth, to the university. 

The mother school was the home school. Under the 
special care of the mother the children were to learn the 
correct use of their language, the free and accurate use 
of the senses, the elements of religion, and correct 
morals. The mother was thus to lay the fqundation for 
all the future knowledge and development of the children. 

The course of the elementary school outlined, in the • 
Didactica included reading and writing the mother- 



THE INNOVATORS 211 

tongue, drawing, arithmetic, including practical measure- 
ments, the catechism, singing, civil government, history, 
and geography. 

The gymnasial course embraced grammar, arithmetic, 
geometry, astronomy, physics, geography, music, rhetoric, 
logic, and ethics. 

The university was to offer special advanced courses 
in all departments of learning. 

He almost exactly anticipated the present elementary 
and secondary courses of the public schools in the 
United States. 

The general aims of these courses of training and 
instruction are set forth in the author's noble, definition 

of a school. "I call that a school perfectly General Aims 

fulfilling its mission which is a place for the of Education. 
building up of a genuine manhood, where the spirit of 
the learner is baptized into the glory of knowledge and 
wisdom, quick to understand all things secret and re- 
vealed, where the emotions of the soul are brought into 
full harmony with all the virtues, the heart so won by 
the love of God and filled with it, that it is possible for 
all who are intrusted to the school to be led into true 
wisdom, to become accustomed even here on earth to 
lead a heaven-like life." In his own analysis, the pupil 
is to become intelligent, moral, and pious, and these 
qualities are to have their setting in a body rendered 
healthy and vigorous by all approved forms of physical 
training. The intelligence is to be developed by teaching 
the pupil to know himself and all things in his environ- 
ment necessary to a useful life. 

Comenius adopted Ratich's proposition, " Everything 



212 ' HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

in the order of Nature," but with far deeper insight into 
its meaning. The study and other work of the school, 
Natural the Didactica teaches, is to be made pleasant. 

Development rpj^^ pupils are to leam nothing and do 
Correlation. nothing whicli is not demanded by their 
native powers and possibilities and in conformity with 
the practical requirements of their environment. All is 
to be carefully graded in harmony with the progressive 
steps in their development. Besides this careful correla- 
tion of work with the unfolding powers of life, all the 
different elements of school work are to be properly 
correlated with one another, so that things which belong 
together are studied together. 

Instruction is to proceed from the general to the 
particular, from the easy to the difficult. As nearly as 
possible, understanding is to condition what shall be 
committed to memory. That only is to be taught which 
prepares for the best use of life. 

The work of the school is to be fundamentally realistic 
and, in a broad sense, practical. " People must be taught 
Keaiism of the ^^ S^^ theu" knowledge, as far as possible, not 
ixdactica. from books, but from earth and sky, from 
oaks and beeches." When it is not possible to study 
the things themselves, then the most realistic representa- 
tions are to be employed, as skeletons, models of mus- 
cles and vital organs in physiology, and pictures in 
many studies. In the elementary course no foreign 
tongue is to be allowed to interfere with the attainment 
of that sense knowledge which is the basis of all true 
knowing. 

The principle of correlation is to be apphed to forms 



THE INNOVATORS 213 

of expression. Whatsoever the pupil learns that shall 
he also express. The mouth and the hand are to be 
trained to keep pace with the understanding. Theory of 
The word and the thing are to be bound Expression. 
together. Written exercises are to be numerous, and 
express the pupil's growing knowledge. All training in 
style is to be connected with the effort to express what 
is learned. 

When foreign languages like Latin are studied, they are 
to be learned by reading and use, rather than by gram- 
matical rule. The language learning is to keep step with 
the growth of intelligence and the knowledge of things. 

Practical arts are to be learned by doing, as singing by 
singing, writing by writing. The learner must be trained 
to the right use of the material employed, must be skil- 
fully guided, and have abundant practice. Rules are to 
be subordinated to examples, and are to guide practice. 
They must be few, short, and clear, and necessary to 
the direction of the work. 

Comenius, as Pestalozzi also did after him, applied 
this principle to religious and moral training. He, of 
course, advised the teaching of principles and rules, but 
thought the main dependence is to be placed on kind 
and tactful guidance to moral conduct. Piety is to be 
developed by teaching the Bible, the visible works of 
God as the revelation of his glory, and by habituating 
children to prayer and self-measurement. 

The Didactica supplements the theory of teaching with 
an intelligent and sympathetic analysis of the principles 
and methods of discipline in harmony with the rest of 
the work. 



214 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

The weakest part of the educational theory presented 
in the Didaotica is the exaggerated value set upon know- 
The Pansophic '^^^ ^^^ things. It recurs every now and then. 
Scheme. Comenius thought that a man's development 

completes itself in a knowledge of the essentials of all 
forms of existence and of every human occupation. In 
accord with this thought, he planned a scheme for the 
publication of a work summing up in itself the whole 
range of knowledge. To make the work possible, he 
desired to secure the founding of an institution in which 
all departments of knowledge might be taught and 
worked up, and thus prepared for publication. 

This pansophic, all-knowledge, scheme brought him 
into touch with a man in England named Hartlib, a 
friend of John Milton's. He, with a number of others, 
had a similar scheme. It had been suggested to them, 
possibly also to Comenius, by Bacon's New Atlantis. 
For a time they entertained hopes that Parliament would 
furnish the money to establish such an institution. 
Comenius was to be its head. He was summoned to 
appear before Parliament and present the details of the 
scheme, but trouble in Scotland and a war with Ireland 
diverted the attention of Parliament, and the scheme 
failed. 

The great reputation of Comenius during his life, and 
possibly his greatest usefulness, was due neither to the 
Didadica nor to the pansophic scheme. It arose from 
the text-books which he wrote in harmony with his 
theories. 

The first of these text-books to attract special atten- 
tion was the Janua Linguarum Reserata., — " The Gate of 



THE INNOVATORS 215 

Tongues Unlocked." It was published while he was 
teaching at Lissa and before the Bidactica had appeared. 
It immediately made him more famous than The Janua 
perhaps any other teacher has ever been made Linguarum. 
by a single text-book. The Janua was suggested to him 
by the work of an Irish Jesuit named Batty, who had 
written short treatises introducing all the words of the 
Latin language. In adopting the suggestion, Comenius 
was influenced by three of his own leading ideas : the 
idea of teaching men all things, of adapting the language 
to the understanding, and of turning the attention to the 
things themselves. He described in the book all forms 
of occupations, and set forth the elements of all the 
sciences in Latin and German side by side. The state- 
ments were made very simple in the beginning, more 
difficult towards the end. The treatises were arranged 
under one hundred heads, and contained eight thousand 
words used in a thousand sentences. It had the serious 
mistake of using each word only once. 

The book was soon translated into ten or a dozen 
European languages, and into Turkish and Arabic besides. 

It was largely the reputation produced by this book 
that caused Comenius to be called to England. It also 
brought him an invitation from Oxenstiem to reform 
the school work of Sweden. That was the position for 
ivhich Ratich had been considered. Comenius under- 
took the commission. During its prosecution, a period 
of four years, he resided at Elbing, Prussia, under the 
patronage of a wealthy and generous Dutch merchant 
named De Geer. The principal fruit of his labor was 
the Latest Method of Teaching Language. 



216 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

In 1650 he accepted a commission to reform the 
schools of Transylvania. He took up his residence at 
Patak, where he established schools. He remained there 
four years. In this time, among many works, he pro- 
duced his greatest and most useful text-book, the Orbis 
Piotus, — " The World Illustrated." It was an improved 
.pj^g edition of the Janua, with the addition of 

Orbis Pictus. pictures to illustrate the text. Everything 
in the pictures that was named in the Latin and vernacu- 
lar texts had a number attached to it which was also 
attached to the proper words in the texts. Thus the 
pictures served to explain the text. This was the 
first illustrated school-book ever published, the fore- 
runner of all the beautifully illustrated readers and 
other school-books of to-day. It was a decided step 
forward in realism. The book had an enormous cir- 
culation. The Didactica marked a revolution in educa- 
tional theory ; this wrought a revolution in educational 
practice. 

After Lissa was plundered by the Poles, in 1665, Co- 
menius wandered for some months in Germany. He 
was offered an asylum in Amsterdam by Laurence De 
Geer, the son of his former patron. There his life came 
to a peaceful end in 1671. In his seventy-seventh year 
he wrote his last work, his confession. In this occur 
Last Days of thcse bcautiful words, which enable us to 
comenius. look iuto the mau's innermost soul: "To 
Christ, my eternal love, I give unending thanks, because 
he has placed such love for his lambs in my heart and 
so blessed me that I could accomplish for them what I 
have. I hope and confidently expect from my God that 



THE INNOVATORS 217 

my reforms will be realized when the winter of the 
Church is past, the rains have ceased, and the flowers 
blossom forth in the land," 

Contemporaneous with Comenius, John Milton, the 
author of Paradise Lost, placed himself on the side of 
the innovators. His experience as an ambitious and in- 
dustrious student and private tutor together with his zeal 
in the cause of humanity gave him deep interest in edu- 
cation. He expressed his views on the subject in a 
tractate on education addressed to Samuel Hartlib, the 
friend of Comenius. 

He adopted four propositions as fundamental, — Edu- 
cation must be realistic ; Language must be taught as a 
means of expression ; Intellectual effort must be made 
pleasant by grading work in harmony with the pupil's 
developing powers ; There must be thorough physical 
training. 

His views are the more interesting from the fact that 
he was one of the most accomplished classical scholars 
of his time. 

In attempted accord with his principles he outlined a 
course of studies. It was as ponderous as his genius, 
and largely impossible. He himself said of it that " it 
was not a bow for every man to shoot in that counts 
himself a teacher." A number of the methods he pro- 
posed were equally impracticable for a school. 

Milton's tractate seems to have had little practical in- 
fluence, but the case was different with his distinguished 
countryman, John Locke. His work is interesting if for 
no other reason than that he, with Montaigne, did much 
to mould the ideas of Rousseau. 



218 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Locke had special preparation for the educational 
work which he wrote. He was educated for the pro- 
fession of medicine, chiefly with reference to his own 
John Locke, health, which was feeble. He also made a 
1G32-1704. particular study of the limitations and capa- 
bilities of the mind, the results of which he published in 
An Essay on the Human Understanding. He was for a 
time tutor to the son of the Earl of Shaftesbury, and to 
his son after him. The influence of all these experiences 
can be traced in his pedagogical treatise entitled Some 
Thoughts concerning Education. He undoubtedly owed 
much, too, to Montaigne. His general theory is in close 
accord with Montaigne's, and many passages in his work 
bear close resemblance to passages in the essays of the 
French author. 

A person turning from the perusal of the JDidactica of 
Comenius to the Thoughts on Education is at once struck 
by the different temper of the latter. Comenius looked 
upon education as a means for uplifting the race, and 
the Bidactica was written in a broadly humane spirit. 
Locke was a gentleman, in the sense in which the term 
is used in England. His intercourse and sympathies 
were with upper-class Englishmen, though he was a 
liberal-minded man. He wrote only concerning the 
training of a young English gentleman for his accepted 
position in life, and in a dispassionate and practical 
way. 

"A sound mind in a sound body is a short but 
full description of a happy state in this world," is the 
first sentence in Locke's book. It is the key to the 
whole work,. It begins with a comprehensive series of 



THE INNOVATORS 219 

suggestions for the preservation of health. Rules are 
laid down with respect to food, drink, clothing, rest, and 
medicine. Plain food is to be used in moder- Locke's 

ate quantities, and strong drink very seldom Health Rules. 
or never. Locke zealously advocated a hardening pro- 
cess, rather light clothing in winter, and thin, leaky shoes, 
a process that would be very apt to harden many out of 
existence. 

There is almost nothing in his scheme for intellectual 
training that distinguishes him from the other innovators. 
Pupils are to be taught to know things and intellectual 
to learn the mother-tongue first. Only those Training. 
whose social position demands it are to learn Latin, and 
even gentlemen are to learn French before Latin, because 
of its greater usefulness. 

Grammar is not to be studied until the pupil has some 
use of the language, and English grammar is to receive 
special attention, because it is a greater disgrace to use 
the native language incorrectly than to blunder in a for- 
eign tongue. 

Some pains should be taken to teach drawing, to en- 
able men to tell what they have seen readily by means 
of pictures, as it is sometimes possible to tell in that way 
more plainly and definitely than by means of words. 
For this reason drawing is specially serviceable for a 
gentleman when he travels. He is also to be taught law. 

Study is to be made as nearly hke play as possible. 
The teacher is to observe the pupil closely 
in order to discover the periods of special 
aptitudes and inclinations, so that he may adapt the exer- 
cises to them. To make the learning of reading pleasant, 



220 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

he devised games with blocks of wood having letters on 
them. 

Locke makes the cultivation of morals and manners 
of primary importance. All learning is to be subordinate 
Manners and ^^ ^irtuc and good manners. The largest 
Morals. part of liis book is devoted to the subject. 

Careful rules are laid down concerning the crying, 
whining, fears, stubbornness, cruelty, and lying of chil- 
dren, and the cultivation of self-denial, courage, good 
nature, and politeness. The discipline is to be tactful 
and mild, and appeal to the mind with its rewards 
and punishments rather than to the body. The result 
of it should be the development of a fine sense of 
honor. 

Partly for the sake of his manners and partly for the 
sake of strength and dexterity, the young gentleman is 
Physical ^^ ^^ carefully trained in dancing, music, 

Training. wrcstling, and fencing. To this Locke made 
what was for that time a rather remarkable addition. It 
is that the young man learn gardening and at least one 
manual trade as a means of pleasant recreation and a 
safeguard against useless and dangerous pastimes. 

The statement with respect to trades suggests another 
of Locke's contributions to educational history. When 
Working- h^ ^^^ commissioner of " Trade and Planta- 
schoois. . 'tions" he proposed a plan for working- 
schools for pauper children over three years old. The 
objects of the plan were to relieve the parish of the 
burden of maintaining the children by giving it the 
benefit of their labor, to relieve the mother at home, and 
to accustom the children to work. 



THE INNOVATORS 221 

Locke's own teaching experience was that of a tutor, 
and he naturally fell into Montaigne's blunder of regard- 
ing private education as superior to that of the schools. 
In other words, he believed in trying to make 
students out of boys by removing them 
from the helpful and inspiring companionship of fellow- 
students, and to develop morals and manners by remov- 
ing them from a large field for their proper exercise. ' 

Another great man, a Frenchman, deserves a high 
place in the list of the educational reformers of the 
seventeenth century. It is Franyois Fenelon. 

Fenelon was born in the province of Perigord in 1651. 
He was ordained a priest at twenty-four. At the time 
of his death he was archbishop of Cambray. 

" Francois 

He was one of the few men great in history Feneion. 

who can be termed lovable without at the i6oi-i/i5. 

same time implying some want of strength and dignity. 
He was a very learned man, "a fluent and charming 
writer, one of the classical authors of France. He was 
a born teacher, inflexible in principle and purpose, and 
possessed of wonderful tact and sweetness of temper. 

Most of his work as a teacher was connected with the 
efforts to make the Catholic religion universal in France. 
These efforts culminated in the revocation of the Edict 
oi Nantes in 1685. His first experience as a teacher he 
gained as superior of the convent of the New Catholics. 
This was an institution for the retention and education 
of female converts from the Protestant faith. 

While connected with the convent of the New Catho- 
lics Fenelon wrote a treatise on the Education of Girls, It 
is still regarded a classic in French pedagogical literature. 



222 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

It is very interesting both because of its general peda- 
gogical views and because it presents the opinions on 
female education of a man who, on this subject, was far 
in advance of his time. It thus indirectly 

Theory of •' 

Female reveals the educational standing of the corn- 

Education, paratively few women of that day who re- 
ceived any instruction beyond the requirements for 
admission to church membership and the training for 
household duties. 

He accepted the proposition that women are intellect- 
ually weaker than men. He argued that for this very 
reason they should be educated in order to strengthen 
their intelligence. He pleaded that they be trained to 
perform well their duties in life, duties that constitute the 
foundations of all human life. " They have the princi- 
pal part in the good or bad morals of almost the whole 
world. A judicious, diligent, and pious woman is the 
soul of a household ; she establishes order in it for tem- 
poral prosperity and salvation." 

He considered female education necessary, too, to 
keep girls from falling into objectionable habits and de- 
veloping a discontented disposition because of idleness. 
If they are bright, he thought, they are apt to read books 
that nourish Canity, and romances that develop unwhole- 
some and extravagant ideas of things, and morbid senti- 
mentality. 

He asked that girls be taught to read and write cor- 
rectly, and that they also learn grammar, that they be 
instructed in ancient and modern history, and be given a 
course in good literature, both prose and poetic, ancient 
and modem. 



THE INNOVATORS 223 

The methods which he advocated are applicaltle to 
both girls and boys. Some of his reahsm sounds very 
much hke that of Comenius. He advises that teachers 
take advantage of the curiosity of children. Feneion's 
If they desire to see a mill or a shop, they Methods. 

should be taken there and shown how the work is done. 
In this way they can be taught how are made the things 
that serve human needs. 

Instruction is to be indirect as far as possible, because 
it and all the activity of the pupils is to be highly pleas- 
urable to them. In harmony with this thought he gave 
great prominence to history and fables as means for 
moral instruction. 

From 1689 to 1695 Fenelon was the preceptor of 
the Duke of Burgundy, grandson of Louis XIV. The 
young man was a "born terror." He would fly into 
wild fits of passion at the rain if it interfered with his 
sports. Because of his firmness of purpose, his tact, 
amiability, and skill in teaching, Fenelon was remarka- 
bly successful in managing the young man and moulding 
his character. 

In pursuance of his theory of indirect teaching, he 
composed fables, dialogues, and stories to teach his royal 
pupil morals and history and develop in iTjtn broad and 
generous views of life and the duties of rulers. The 
most famous of these are the Collection of Teaching 
Fables^ the Dialogues of the Bead, and the with stories. 
Telemaque. In the Dialogues famous historical char- 
acters appear and converse. The Telemaque was taken 
from Homer. In it the author presented such liberal 
views with respect to the organization of society that, 



224 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

when a treacherous publication of the book brought it 
to the notice of the king, he interpreted it as a satire 
upon his government and became irreconcilably dis- 
pleased. With his books Fenelon not only permanently 
enriched French literature, but he also led the way in 
modern story methods of teaching. 



XX 

PROGRESS OF THE SCHOOLS IN THE 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 

In the seventeenth century no other country in the 
world developed educational facilities for the masses of 
the people with such rapidity and enthusiasm as Holland. 
Germany might have kept pace with her if 

X- ir ^ In Holland. 

she had not suffered from the devastation of 
the Thirty Years' War, but that teriible struggle left her 
seriously crippled. Holland had excellent preparation 
for the new school spirit aroused by the Reformation. 
In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries she was justly 
famous for the size and number of her burgher schools, 
and the memory of the schools of the Brethren of the 
Common Life still had an inspiring influence. 

As early as 1582 the Estates of Friesland decreed that 
the inhabitants of towns and villages should provide good 
and able Reformed schoolmasters. John of Nassau, 
brother of William the Silent, wrote to his son, the 
Stadtholder of Friesland, urging him to establish free 
schools in which the rich and the poor might be educated 
very cheaply. 

The schools then established and supported in whole 
or in part at the public expense were in the nature of 
the German parish schools already described. The 
teacher acted also as clerk of the church, bell-ringer, 
grave-digger, and choir-master. The teaching was often 

15 225 



226 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

poor enough. Early in the seventeenth century there 
were already so many of these schools established that, 
it is claimed, it was almost impossible to find a person 
in Holland, even in the country, unable to read and 
write, provided he was old enough for such accomplish- 
ments. It is supposed by many that the public school 
interest manifested by the early New England settlers 
was acquired by them during their sojourn among the 
Hollanders. 

The seventeenth century saw the beginning of educa- 
tional activity in America, and citizens of the great Re- 
public may now look back with pride to the beginnings, 
Schools in simple enough it may be, yet rich with prom- 
America. [qq fop the futurc. The northern colonies, 
from the beginning, committed themselves to a local 
public school system. 

The first public school in this country was opened in 
New Amsterdam in 1633. It was supported, at least in 
part, by a special tax. Its first teacher was Adam Roe- 
lanstan. The school has been continued and is main- 
tained by the Collegiate Dutch Reformed Church of New 
York City. It is thus the oldest school in the United 
States. 

Next to this in age is the Boston Latin School, estab- 
lished in 1635. The rent of several islands in the harbor 
was set aside for its support. To this prominent citizens 
also contributed liberally. 

In 1647 the General Court of Massachusetts ordered 
that every township should appoint a teacher for ele- 
mentary instruction, to be paid either by the patrons 
or by the public in general. When the town had one 



SCHOOLS IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 227 

hundred or more families it was to maintain a grammar 
school, a classical secondary school, to prepare students 
for college. Thus was inaugurated in Massachusetts the 
American plan of keeping elementary education in touch 
with the higher. 

Connecticut had a public school in 1639, and there 
was a compulsory feature in its school law of 1650. 
The selectmen of every town were to see to it that no 
families allowed their children or apprentices to grow up 
without being able at least to read and write perfectly 
the English tongue. 

Newport, Rhode Island, established a public school in 
1640, and Newark, New Jersey, did the same in 1676. 
Burlington, New Jersey, estal^lished a permanent school 
fund by selling or renting the land on an island in the 
Delaware. Philadelphia provided a public school imme- 
diately after its founding. When New Hampshire be- 
came separate from Massachusetts, in 1693, it at once 
equally taxed all the inhabitants for the support of schools. 

In secondary and higher education the southern colo- 
nies vied with those of the north ; but the public school 
idea did not take root there. This was due partly to the 
scattered condition of the population and partly to the 
peculiar type of social life. 

It is not wise to praise extravagantly the teaching in 
these first public schools, yet in New Eng- character of 
land it was common for the young graduates t^e schools. 
of Harvard to teach in the elementary schools before 
taking up a profession. 

One of the interesting features of the early New Eng- 
land schools was the hornbook. This was an English 



228 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

invention. It was a square paddle of wood or paste- 
board furnished with a short handle. On it was pasted 
a sheet of paper containing the small and capital letters, 
the Arabic and Roman numerals, a number of syllables 
for spelling, and the Lord's prayer. Over the paper was 
fastened a transparent sheet of horn. It was one of the 
most convenient books ever invented, because its shape 
and strength adapted it to be applied to the body when 
the pupil lacked diligence, and thus made it serve as a 
stimulator. 

After the hornbook was mastered, the catechism was 
studied and the Bible was read. The arithmetic lessons 
were very simple. The hornbook was superseded 
finally by the primer, which resembled the handbook 
for children used in the German schools. 

The colonists also were by no means behind in inter- 
est in higher education. In 1636 the General Court of 
First American Massachusetts votcd four hundred pounds 
Colleges. for the founding of a college. To this Rev. 

John Harvard added eight hundred and fifty pounds and 
his whole library. As the result, Harvard College was 
opened for students in 1638. 

In 1692 was founded the first college in the South, 
William and Mary, in Virginia. A fund had been created 
for the purpose as early as 1619, but Indian wars and 
other troubles prevented the realization of the project at 
the time. William and Mary started well. It received 
a royal charter, a royal grant of twenty thousand acres 
of land, besides an assignment of rents due in the colony 
amounting to two thousand pounds, and liberal donations 
from prominent people. 



SCHOOLS IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 229 

In Europe, Scotland was the one country that rivalled 
Holland in its interest in public instruction. In 1646 
there was enacted a law requiring landlords 

. In Scotland. 

to provide school-houses m every parish and 
employ teachers. This law was re-enacted in 1696, and 
seems to have been then very faithfully complied with. 
The supervision of these schools was vested m the pres- 
byteries. In many of the schools, both in towns and 
villages, the masters taught Latin and Greek and pre- 
pared boys for the university. 

We have already seen with what rapidity the Jesuits 
established schools throughout the Catholic world and in 
mission countries. This continued during the seven- 
teenth century, but in France there arose rival orders 
that made a deep and lasting impression on educational 
thought and action in that country. The The oratory 
first and most widely active of these orders of Jesus. 

was the Oratory of Jesus, instituted in 1614. It differed 
very much in its character from the Society of Jesus, 
and just as much in its school work. 

The Oratorians taught theology, but they also estab- 
lished secondary schools for all classes. In these latter 
all instruction up to the fourth year was in the mother- 
tongue. In the study of history the French language 
was continued through the course. They gave generous 
attention to mathematics, physics, and history. They 
united the study of geography with history, and used 
mural charts to illustrate lessons. They gave little atten- 
tion to Greek. 

The most radical innovators of all the religious 
teachers in France were the Jansenists. 



230 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Jansenism was a decided reaction in the Catholic 

Church against the theology and methods of the Jesuits. 

It originated in Holland with Bishop Jan- 

Jausenism. . n . i. « n 

senius. It Avon many enthusiastic followers 
in France. The French Jansenists made Port Royal, an 
old convent near Paris, the base of their activity. They 
were a severely austere body, but took a deep interest 
in the welfare of the masses. They advocated more 
evangelical doctrine, and demanded that the Bible and 
the service of the church be translated into the language 
of the people and placed in their hands. 

In 1643 the French Jansenists opened what they 
called the Little Schools, at Port Royal. A number of 
distinguished teachers and authors of text-books and 
methods were connected with the Little Schools. 

In these Port Royal schools the French language was 
studied before the Latin, and even the Latin grammar 
Port Royal ^^^^^ Written in French. To make the learn- 
Methods. ing of reading easier, the teachers invented 

and used the phonic method of spelling. Instead of 
naming the letters in syllables and words, the pupils 
uttered the sounds of the vowels and vowel compounds, 
and then pronounced the syllables or words without 
trying to give the separate sound values of the conso- 
nants. 

Up to the age of twelve, besides learning to read and 
write, the pupils studied the elements of sacred history, 
geography, and arithmetic. To make the learning pleas- 
ant, they were taught these in the form of amusements. 

The regular course of study commenced at the age of 
twelve. In pursuance of the desire to make study a 



SCHOOLS IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 231 

source of pleasure, the teachers, in pleasant summer 
weather, instructed their pupils under the shade of trees 
by the side of brooks. Even in winter, when the 
weather permitted, they gave their lessons while walking 
out with the pupils. 

As indicated by Nicole, one of the most famous of the 
Port Royal teachers, their aim was to adapt work to the 
capacity and disposition of the pupils, and to develop 
intelligence to the fulness of capacity. Because of the 
austere views of life that prevailed at Port Royal, the 
discipline, though kind in intention, was by no means 
natural and wise. 

The schools early came to a melancholy end. The 
Jesuits secured an order for their suppression. Teachers 
and pupils were scattered, the buildings razed to the 
ground, and the very foundations were ploughed up. 

Towards the end of the century there appeared a re- 
ligious enthusiast in the Catholic Church who attempted 
to do for elementary education and the working classes 
what the Jesuits were doing for secondary education and 
the higher classes. This was a priest of Lasaiieand 
Reims, Jean Baptiste de la Salle. In spite ms order. 
of a delicate constitution, he had persisted m his studies 
with unflinching energy until he had won a doctor's de- 
gree from the University of Paris. Often to keep awake 
for work he knelt upon sharp stones, and he sometimes 
placed a board studded with iron points in front of him 
on his table to waken him when his head leaned for- 
ward weighed down by drowsiness. With a similar per- 
sistance of devotion he consecrated his life to plans for 
the education of the lowly. He met with unexpected 



232 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

opposition from teachers of corporation schools and from 
the clergy, but he never faltered. When he died, in 
1719, he could close his eyes in peace on the abundant 
fruitage of a beautiful life. 

In 1679 La Salle opened a school for boys at Reims. 
In 1684 he imposed vows upon his disciples and pre- 
scribed a costume for them. Thus began the Institute 
of the Brethren of the Christian Schools. Soon after, in 
1688, he went to Paris to found schools there. Besides 
giving elementary instruction, the Brethren also con- 
ducted technical schools to prepare young men for 
commercial and industrial pursuits. The first of these 
La Salle founded at Saint Yon, near Rouen. 

In his work La Salle had a predecessor in the priest 
Charles Demia, who had in a somewhat similar manner 
organized elementary instruction in Lyons. 

La Salle wrote out minute directions for the manage- 
ment of the schools of the Brethren. He termed it 
The Conduct ^^^^ Conduct of Schools. It pcrforms an office 
of Schools. sunilar to that of the Ratio Studiorum of the 
Jesuits. It has been changed a number of times in the 
present century, radically in a few of its features. 

The course of study outlined for elementary schools 
embraces reading, writing, orthography, arithmetic, and 
the catechism. 

As in the Port Royal schools, all the first lessons are 
to be given in the native language. Much attention is to 
be given to writing, according to the Conduct ; and first 
lessons are to be followed by the writing of notes, re- 
ceipts, and bills. 

The teaching described in the Conduct is definite and 



SCHOOLS IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 233 

mechanical. Everything is to be done strictly according 
to rule. This is true even of every phase of discipline. 
The ferule is described w^ith interesting particularity. It 
is to consist of two pieces of leather sewed together. It 
shall be from ten to twelve inches long, including the 
handle. The palm shall be oval, two inches in diameter, 
and rounded with a lining to fit the hand. It is to be 
applied to the left hand of a culprit so as not to interfere 
with his writing. The offences for which it is to be ap- 
plied are specified, and the number of blows for each. 
The offences for which the rod is to be used are similarly 
catalogued. 

The Brethren have since repudiated corporal punish- 
ment. Penances, used from the beginning, serve 
instead. 

The work of the school is to be done as nearly as 
possible in perfect silence. What is said by teacher and 
pupil is to be said in a very low tone of voice. La Salle 
invented a code of signs to be used for many things in 
place of speech. 

In teaching the catechism and arithmetic, the teachers 
are to question freely so as to make sure that the pupils 
understand. 

Religious training is to be very prominent. The Con- 
duct directs that there shall always be two or three 
scholars kneeling, who will tell their beads one after 
another. There shall be mass every day, and one-half 
hour every day shall be devoted to the catechism. One 
of the forms of penance recommended is to learn a few 
pages of the catechism by heart ; another is to maintain 
a kneeling posture before the school. 



234 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Two things give a notable character to the work of La 
Salle. Previous to him it was customary for teachers 
Simultaneous in primary schools to give each pupil his 
So^mir^''*^ lesson separately. He conceived the plan 
Schools. of grading the pupils, and of giving the 

pupils of the same grade their lessons at the same time 
and of having them recite together. Within certain limits 
this is useful and economical. 

La Salle also, more fully possibly than the Jesuits, 
realized the need of special training for teachers. In 
1685 he opened at Reims a "Seminary for Schoolmas- 
ters." Afterwards he opened another in the city of 
Paris. He connected with this normal school a primary 
school for practice. In the practice school the students 
in training taught under the supervision of an experienced 
teacher. 

When La Salle died he had founded one normal 
school for the Order and four for the training of teachers 
in general, three practice schools, thirty-three primary 
Growth of the schools, and the technical school at Saint 
Schools. Yon. The Institute has extended its exist- 

ence and activity into a number of countries in Europe, 
into Canada, into the United States, and into Africa and 
Asia. The Christian Brothers are now teaching in the 
different countries more than three hundred thousand 
primary pupils. 

Corresponding in general spirit to the Jansenist move- 
ment in the Catholic Church, there arose a Protestant 
revival but little later. The religious status of Europe in 
the seventeenth century was in many respects far from 
ideal. Much of the fervor of the Reformation era had 



SCHOOLS IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 235 

died away. The division of western Christendom had 
plunged the different religious bodies into vigorous, even 
virulent, discussions. There naturally ensued a strongly 
marked tendency to make religion a mere matter of theo- 
logical definition and theory. This more and more made 
genuine piety of life a secondary matter. The unfortu- 
nate features of the religion of the time were multiplied 
and intensified by the fact that religious questions were 
still vitally connected with affairs of state. The sepa- 
ration of church and state was as yet dreamt of by few. 
As a consequence, religious bodies became involved 
in all kinds of political intrigues and cruel persecutions. 
Pious and thoughtful men grew weary of these things. 

In the Lutheran Church there arose a strong reaction 
against the prevailing state of religion. It was an effort 
to make religion at least as much a matter of the heart 
and daily life as of definition and philosophy. In mock- 
ery, the leaders of the movement were called 
Pietists. Their zeal soon gave the term dig- 
nity and honor. The foremost among them was Philip 
Spener. In 1670, while pastor at Frankfort-on-the-Main, 
he began to hold meetings for Bible study and the devel- 
opment of true gospel piety. His position afterwards as 
chief court preacher gave him great influence. In 1691 
the Pietists under his leadership founded a university at 
Halle. Spener was instrumental in having called to 
this institution August Hermann Francke, a man well 
worthy of study. His life is full of inspiring power, and 
his work marks an epoch in the history of education. 

Like Ratich, Francke was a Lutheran from the north 
of Germany. He was born at Lubeck in 1663. He was 



236 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

prepared for the university in the gymnasium at Gotha, 

and pursued his university studies at Erfurt, Kiel, and 

Leipsic. He studied theology, but went over 

Francke's Life. 

the whole range of general leammg, inclu- 
ding among his studies physics and natural science. His 
principal attention was given to Hebrew and Greek. For 
a time he located at Leipsic as "privat-docent." During 
this time he originated the Collegium Philobiblium, an 
organization of graduates for the systematic study of the 
Bible. He was encouraged in this by Spener. After 
varied experience as pastor, teacher, and Bible lecturer, 
he was called to the chair of Greek and Oriental lan- 
guages in the new university at Halle. Here he did the 
great work of his life. Thirty-six years his labors con- 
tinued, almost to the very day of his death. 

What Francke achieved at Halle almost passes belief, 
and yet it had a very humble beginning. He received 
no salary as professor, so he was appointed pastor at 
Glaucha, a suburb of Halle. Every Thursday the poor 
assembled at the parsonage for alms. He took advan- 
tage of this gathering to instruct the children in the cate- 
chism. For a time he ate no supper, in order that he 
might save money to help them. 

In 1695 he fixed a contribution-box in his room. 
One day a benevolent lady put in it seven florins. The 
gift touched the deeper chords of his soul With the 
happiness of a man finding his life, he exclaimed, "This 
is veritable capital. With this something proper must 
be done. I will found a school for the poor." 

The seven florins were like the grain of mustard seed 
in the Bible parable. On the same day in which he 



SCHOOLS IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 237 

received the florins Francke bought books and employed 
one of the students at the university to teach the poor 
children two hours a day at his house. Be- Beginning ms 
fore the first summer had passed the num- institutions. 
ber of pupils had increased to sixty. Among them 
were children whose parents could afford to pay, so it 
became possible to keep the school open five hours a 
day. Its fame brought gifts of money and additional 
pupils. Rooms were rented, then houses, and after a 
time Francke commenced to build. With the courage 
of a sublime faith and the enthusiasm of unbounded 
love, he planned institutions and buildings apparently 
far beyond his resources. 

Everything prospered in his hands. Often he believed 
unexpected and timely gifts to be special answers to his 
prayers. His plans grew out of the conditions that 
formed themselves from the results of his own activity. 
Before the year 1695 had come to a close, three sons of 
noblemen were sent to him to be educated under his 
supervision. This suggested to him the Pedagogium, 
one of the most famous of his schools. And so one 
institution grew out of another until they formed a com- 
plex whole, extensive as a separate village, large and 
remarkable. 

At the time of Francke's death, in 1727, the principal 
institutions were the following : 

1. Burgher Schools, with seventeen hundred and 
twenty-five pupils, boys and girls, taught by ^j^^ 

ninety-eight male and eight female teachers institutions. 
under the supervision of four inspectors. Among the 
pupils were many orphans. 



238 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

2. The Latin School of the Orphan House, with four 
hundred pupils. 

3. The Pedagogium, having eighty-two students. 

4. The Orphan House, with one hundred boys and 
thirty-four girls. 

In addition to these were a home for women, a large 
apothecary establishment, a free table where hundreds 
of needy students got their board, and a publication 
house. Through the latter, at the suggestion and with 
the help of friends, Francke undertook the publication 
of cheap editions of the BODle for generous distribution. 
He also assumed the establishment and direction of an 
active mission on the Coromandel coast. 

Possibly in the whole range of pedagogical history 
there cannot be found another man whose personal 
labors were at once so varied and strenuous and so lofty 
in character, nor another who realized so many imme- 
diate, profound, and far-reaching results. Francke was 
the living verification of the inscription he had placed 
over the entrance to his institutions : " They that wait 
upon the Lord shall renew their strength ; they shall 
mount up with wings as eagles ; they shall run, and not 
be weary ; and they shall walk, and not faint." 

Francke's institutions were not less remarkable for the 
character of the work done than they were for the rapid- 
ity and extent of their growth. What others philoso- 
phized over and advocated he did. 

The Burgher Schools were German schools. In them 
no Latin was taught. They corresponded to the mother- 
tongue schools in the scheme of Comenius. At first the 
pupils were taught only religion, reading, writing, and 



SCHOOLS IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 239 

arithmetic. Later, natural science, history, geography, 
and other studies were added. The girls were also 
taught to do suitable work. Even the orphan r^j^^ Burgher 
boys were taught to knit. These schools real- schools. 

ized definitely the form of the present German elementary 
schools. 

The Latin School was a secondary school designed to 
prepare its students for the university. Besides religious 
instruction, the course included arithmetic, Latin, Greek, 
Hebrew, .higher mathematics, history, geography, and 
music. 

The Pedagogium was a secondary school of a higher 
order. In it were taught Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and 
French, besides German, arithmetic, geogra- ^j^^ 

phy, history, astronomy, geometry, music, Pedagogium. 
botany, anatomy, and the elements of medicine. The 
most notable fact of all was that there was connected 
with it a botanical garden, and that it was equipped with 
a science cabinet, with physical apparatus, a chemical 
laboratory, conveniences for anatomical dissection, turn- 
ing lathes, and machines for grinding glass. The stu- 
dents were to learn wood-turning, glass-grinding, painting, 
and sketching. 

The Pedagogium certainly was a modern school. 
Better than most of the innovators could have planned 
their fundamental ideas were realized here. To this the 
extensive use of the Janua and the Orhis Pictus in the 
German gymnasia had furnished the stepping-stones. 

Most of the teachers in Francke's institutions were 
students in the university, who were thus enabled to 
maintain themselves. Their scholarship was sufficient. 



240 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

but they generally were untrained and inexperienced as 
teachers. So Francke found it advisable and necessary, 
as the Jesuits and Christian Brothers had 
before, to train his teachers for their work. 
He therefore maintained a training-school, the forerunner 
of many. 

Whatever was good in the Reformation for religion 
and education seems to have ripened in Francke, and 
whatever was good in the text-books and the Didactica 
of Comenius seems to have come to abundant fruitage in 
his work. The very weakness of his schools, resulting 
from the necessity of using university students as 
teachers, made them greater sources of blessing. The 
service of the teachers naturally could not be of the 
best, because they generally taught but three years and 
had their attention divided between their teaching and 
their studies. But thus was increased the number of 
those who became familiar with the work and imbued 
with its spirit. These young men, filled with 

Results. . I • f . I 1 . 

the enthusiasm of the great institutions, car- 
ried their influence into every part of Germany. The 
institutions of Francke still live, a monument to a noble 
soul instinct with love for God and humanity. He sank 
to sleep happy in so full a realization of the prayer, 
often repeated during his life, " Do thou be my God, so 
will I be thy servant." 

Francke's work was fairly well started when the 
seventeenth century closed. In his institutions were 
realized the best aspirations and plans of its progressive 
educators. 

Before proceeding to the consideration of the next 



SCHOOLS IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 241 

century, it is well to review the leading features and 
events of the whole Classic Period. They are the fol- 
lowing : 

1. One of the best and most prominent features of the 
period, extending from the latter part of the fifteenth 
to the end of the seventeenth century, was the wide 
extension of intense educational interest and the rapid 
multiplication of schools. This activity was due mainly 
to the Revival of Learning, the Reformation, and to in- 
creased industrial enterprise. 

2. In the control of education religious interests pre- 
dominated throughout the period. Even the schools 
supported partly or altogether by the state were under 
the supervision of the clergy. 

3. In spite of all efforts in opposition, humanism con- 
tinued to be the supreme feature in the courses of study. 

4. The hope of the future supremacy of the mother- 
tongue was to be found in obscure elementary schools, 
the theories of innovators, and the changing conditions 
of life. 

5. The most definite promises for the future of real- 
ism were given by the discoveries of the scientists, the 
writings of Bacon, and the work of Comenius and 
Francke. 

6. The field of mathematics was enriched in the sev- 
enteenth century by the labors of Descartes, Newton, 
and Leibnitz. Descartes introduced the use of expo- 
nents in algebra, and explained negative roots. He also 
enlarged geometry by devising analytics. Newton and 
Leibnitz invented the calculus. 

7. Throughout the period girls were not so generally 

16 



242 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION 



educated as boys, and confined, for the most part, to the 
instruction of elementary and convent schools. Towards 
the close of the seventeenth century Madame de Main- 
tenon, influenced by the writings of Fenelon, introduced 
a course in literature and the production of French plays 
in the convent at St. Cyr ; but the girls displayed such 
spirit and vivacity in the plays, and took such delight 
in the literature, that she became alarmed at the ex- 
periment and dropped it. She returned to the old con- 
vent course of devotions, household employments, and 
limited study. 

8. In this period began the public school with the 
Reformation, and compulsory education. Gotha had a 
compulsory law in 1619. 



HISTORICAL SUMMARY 

Renaissance began with Petrarch and Boccaccio . 14th century. 

Gerhard Groot founded Brethren of the Common Life . 1383 

Chrysoloras began to teach Greek at Florence . . 1395 

Constantinople captured by Turks .... 1453 
Wessel, Agricola, and Reuchlin studied Greek at Paris 

about 1470 

Grocyn began to teach Greek at Oxford .... 1492 
Reuchlin published Hebrew Grammar .... 1506 
Dean Colet founded St. Paul's Grammar School . . 1512 
Erasmus published Greek New Testament . . . 1516 
Zwingli began to preach Reformation at Einsiedeln . 1516 
Luther nailed Theses to church door at Wittenberg . 1517 
Luther wrote letter of appeal for public schools to Magis- 
trates and Councils of German cities .... 1524 
Luther published translation of Bible .... 1534 
Melanchthon formulated Saxony school plan . . . 1528 
John Sturm opened Strasburg Gymnasium . . . 1538 



SCHOOLS IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 243 



Loyola founded Society of Jesus ... 

Ascham's Scholemaster published . 

Montaigne's Essays published 

Ratich's school opened at Anhalt-Kothen 

Bacon published Novum Organum 

Comenius wrote Didadica Magna 

Comenius published Janua Linguarum Beserata 

Comenius published Orbis Sensualium Pictus . 

Port Royalists opened the Little Schools 

La Salle opened a school for boys at Reims 

La Salle founded Brothers of the Christian Schools 

Fenelon published Tke Education of Girls 

Locke published Thoughts on Education 

Francke began his institutions 

Francke formed teachers' seminary 



1580 



1540 
1570 
and 1588 
1619 
1620 
1628 
1631 
1654 
1643 
1679 
1683 
1687 
1692 
1695 
1707 



PART V 
THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 

A PERIOD OF TRANSITION 



XXI 

FIRST HALF OF THE EIGHTEENTH 
CENTURY 

The work of Francke topped the educational activity 
of the seventeenth century and began that of the eigh- 
teenth. Just as it was transitional both in Features of 
position and character, so the educational the Time. 
labors and aspirations of the eighteenth century may be 
regarded as forming the change from the period of classi- 
cal supremacy to the triumph of the public schools and 
the sciences in the nineteenth century. 

Changes as great and numerous as those which lend 
such lively interest to the educational history of the 
sixteenth century did not occur, but the time was not 
colorless from lack of events. There was deep and 
thorough preparation for the occurrences that were to 
make the nineteenth century glorious beyond all that 
had preceded it. Early in the century Ledru Rollin 
made a notable contribution to pedagogical theory. 
More important than this was the development, princi- 
pally in Germany and Austria, of what the Germans call 
Realschulen, literally, real schools, and of numerous 
teachers' seminaries. There was also a significant hu- 
manistic revival, and a beneficial transformation of the 
work in the universities. Before the century was well 
advanced began that radical change in the ideas of 
men which culminated in the great revolutions of its last 

247 



248 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

quarter. These revolutions profoundly modified the 
destinies of nations, and gave to the race an enlarged 
horizon dazzling with the brightness of its promise. 

Rollin attempted a summary of all that was best in 
educational theory and practice. His work, A Treatise 
on Studies, appeared between the years 1726 and 1728. 
He approached his task well equipped. His experience 
Eoiiin ^^^ been extended and crucial. To a wide 

1661-1741. range of scholarship he added rare good sense 
and a placid, genial temper. He was in sincere sym- 
pathy with the principles of the Jansenists, and that made 
him alive to whatever was good in the advocated and 
attempted reforms of the previous century. 

He had devoted many years of his life to teaching. 
He held the chair of eloquence in the Royal College of 
France for some years, was afterwards principal of the 
College of Beauvais, and twice rector of the University 
of Paris. While holding the latter position, he was the 
main instrument in remodelling the courses of study in 
the university and modernizing them. 

In the Treatise, Rollin ranged himself by the side of 
the advocates of the mother-tongue, of realism, and of the 
study of history. For perfecting the use of the mother- 
tongue he advised care in articulation and pronunciation, 
training in the correct use of words, grammatical study, 
literature, translation from other languages, and composi- 
tion. He declared that the early instruction in Latin 
should be given in French. He regarded history, as had 
Luther long before, a means of forming the mind and 
heart of youth. In addition to advocating the study of 
plants and animals, he gave sensible directions to 



FIRST HALF OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 249 

teachers as to the manner of preparing for the work. 
One of the best and most pleasmg features of the 
Treatise is the intelligent and humane discussion of the 
principles and methods of managing children. The work 
has been very influential in France, and was early trans- 
lated into English. 

Most of the development of real schools and training- 
schools for teachers in the eighteenth century is traceable 
to the work of Francke. The real school The Real 
was a new type of secondary school. It schools. 

emphasized attention to mathematics, drawing, geogra- 
phy, history, natural science, and agriculture. It made 
study by direct observation a prominent feature of its 
work, or at least professed to do so. It was a trium- 
phant step forward in the new educational revolution. 
The term Real was first used by Semler in 1739, in a 
report on his school at Halle. He had been intimately 
associated with Francke. The first famous real school 
was established in Berlin in 1747, by Johann Julius 
Hecker. There was soon a number of imitators. These 
early real schools made the mistake of trying to retain 
all the old and adding the new. They also made efforts 
to prepare for special callings. Their courses thus be- 
came too extensive, and the work was rendered defective. 
But they had come to stay. Growing conditions de- 
manded them. They were the forerunners of our Latin- 
scientific and technical schools. 

It is claimed that Frederick William L, of Prussia, 
founded the first state teachers' seminary in Stettin in 
1735. He had one of Francke's adherents in charge. 
Hecker opened a teachers' seminary in connection with 



250 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

his real school in Berlin in 1748. This was adopted by 
Frederick the Great as a state institution. The first one 
Teachers' °^ these scliools to be known as a normal 
Seminaries. school was established in Vienna in 1771. 
The school was very much like many of the American 
normal schools. It was intended not only to train 
teachers, but to serve also as a model for imitation. It 
was a combination of elementary school, real school, 
and teachers' seminary. It became a part of a scheme 
for general education in Austria, whose accomplishment 
Maria Theresa placed in charge of John Ignacius von 
Felbiger. He was a Catholic abbot, who took deep in- 
terest in popular education and had been profoundly 
impressed by the educational principles and labors of 
the Pietists. He personally visited Hecker's school in 
Berlin, and sent a number of young men there at his 
own expense to learn the methods. In pursuance of the 
scheme, there were soon fifteen normal schools in Aus- 
tria. In Germany there were about thirty training- 
schools by the end of the century. 

The year 1738, it may be noted too, saw the begin- 
ning of university instruction in pedagogy. In that year 
Gesner founded a pedagogic seminar at the 

Pedagogy ^ ® ° 

in the uew University of Gottingen. Nine students 

Universities. ^^ theology formed the first seminar. To 
prepare for teaching they were bound to study, in addi- 
tion to their theological course, all the philosophical 
studies, mathematics, physics, history, and geography. 
The director gave instruction two hours daily in the 
different branches of a secondary course and in the 
methods of teachinff them. Once a week there was 



FIRST HALF OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 251 

disputation in Latin on philosophical subjects. The stu- 
dents were to do practice work in the schools of the 
town. Following the example of Gottingen, other uni- 
versities added lectures on pedagogy to the course in 
philosophy. 

The tendency in humanism from the beginning had 
been to use the classic authors as means of increasing 
vocabulary and enlarging the command of idioms, as 
treasuries of material for drills in grammar and rhetoric, 
and as helps to the cultivation of style. As The New 
the first enthusiasm of humanism declined Humanism. 
this tendency increased. Gesner at Gottingen en- 
deavored to change this by directing the attention of 
humanistic students to the classic authors as masters of 
thought and poetic beauty. When studying a classic 
text, he sought to reproduce the conditions under which 
it was written and the mental equipment of the author. 
Whatever he could find that would enable the student 
to realize the exact thought and tone of feeling which the 
text was created to express, that he used. He sought to 
make the past, as it had found expression in literature, 
breathe again and talk to the student with the warmth 
and clearness of life. His efforts were seconded by his 
friend Ernesti, of the Thomas school at Leipsic, and 
continued by his successor Heyne and the distinguished 
philologist F. A. Wolfe at Halle. These men established 
the new humanism by sending out from their institutions 
trained teachers, imbued with the spirit of their work, to 
teach in the secondary schools throughout Germany. 
The best results of their labors are found in the richly 
annotated and illustrated texts with which the riper 



252 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

scholarship of the nineteenth century has enlivened and 
illumined the study of the ancient literatures. 

The forms of thought that prevailed in the beginning 
of the eighteenth century became repulsive to many 
Social active and original thinkers, and its social 

Conditions. conditious Were well-nigh intolerable. The 
measures adopted by dominant religious authorities to 
establish and maintain uniformity were extremely harsh 
and rigorous, heartless to a degree incomprehensible now. 
The theology of the time, of the different Protestant 
bodies especially, was generally sombre, hard, and nar- 
row. Society was burdened by the large numbers of 
the hereditary aristocracy who added nothing to its pro- 
ductiveness, avoided its taxes, and lived in profligate ex- 
travagance on the revenues wrung out of the life-blood 
of its toilers. The great body of the people lived in pitia- 
ble and hopeless wretchedness. In France the peasants 
were forbidden even to raise crops at certain seasons 
and to fence their fields, in order that they might not 
interfere with the hunting of the nobles. 

In England, and still more generally in some of the 
Catholic countries, the wretchedness of the state of 
affairs was increased by the fact that the high offices of 
the church were frequently sought by younger sons of 
noble houses who had not the slightest pretence of de- 
votion to the interests of religion. They desired the 
offices for the revenues and social prerogatives attached 
to them. 

Whether for good or ill, two great events had not 
slightly changed the attitude of men's minds towards the 
social questions involved in these unhappy conditions. 



FIRST HALF OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 253 

These were the Reformation and the revolution that had 
established the Commonwealth of England. A divinity 
had hedged in officers of religion and state pnmary causes 
and permitted them to exercise or abuse their o^ change. 
functions without question ; but with many people that 
was now a thing of the past. When the English people 
beheaded their king at Whitehall, they gave a shock to 
the doctrine of the divine right of kings from which it 
has never recovered. 

Probably matters were no worse in the eighteenth 
century than they had often been before ; but the spirit 
of the masses was awakening. People generally devel- 
oped a keener sense of wrong, a more eager longing for 
a closer approach to equity and a wider range of oppor- 
tunity. So revolutions came on apace. Some were 
wrought quietly in the studies of scholars and thinkers ; 
some came through acrimonious debate ; some, like our 
American Revolution, were won nobly on the field of 
battle ; and some arose from the bloody deluge of the 
Reign of Terror. 

The first great changes were changes in thought. 
Side by side with the Methodist revival in England there 
developed a vigorous effort to reject all the 
special claims of Christianity. Men arose Religious 
who asserted that the beliefs peculiar to Thought. 
the Christian religion were as ill-founded and worthless 
as those distinctive of Judaism and Mohammedanism. 
They sought to substitute for it a natural deism. This 
deism rapidly spread over the continent of Europe, and 
also deeply influenced some of the strongest minds in 
America. It found ardent champions in France, where 



254 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

most of the free-thinkers became pronounced atheists. 
The astronomer Lalande declared that he had swept the 
entire heavens with his telescope and found no God 
there. This atheistic thought was shallow and flippant, 
being purely reactionary, yet back of it there was a large 
measure of generous sympathy for humanity. 

In economic philosophy certain ideas became strongly 
rooted in men's minds. The most prominent of these 
Change in wcrc I (1) that man originally lived in a state 
Social Ideas, of Nature ; (2) that society rests upon a 
social contract voluntarily made by men for the enforce- 
ment of laws and the protection of rights which natu- 
rally belong to all men ; (3) that a false inequality exists 
among men because some usurp what by natural right 
belongs to all. 

This philosophy had commenced with Hobbes and 
Locke in England. In the form which it assumed in the 
eighteenth century it was in the interest of the masses of 
the people. Coupled with deism and atheism, it finally 
found expression in the bloodshed of the French Revolu- 
tion. Its most powerful mouthpiece was Rousseau, who 
also translated it into the most brilliant and influential 
educational theory of the century. 



XXII 
JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU 

It seems impossDDle to present Rousseau's educational 
theories intelligently without devoting to him more space 
proportionally than he deserves. The best efforts to 
discuss his Emile briefly must necessarily be unsatis- 
factory. 

Rousseau was admirably fitted by natural endowment, 
by training, and by lack of training to be a leader in 
revolutionary thought. He was born in 
Geneva in 1712. His mother was the daugh- 
ter of a Protestant minister. She was a refined lady, but 
of overwrought sensibility, much intensified by reading 
highly colored, sentimental romances. His father, a 
watchmaker, was of French descent, lively, romantic, 
passionate of temper, and dissipated in habit. Rous- 
seau's life caused his mother's death, and he was left to 
the care of an indulgent aunt. He grew up without 
moral discipline, subject only to his own lively and pre- 
cocious caprice. 

When he was six years old he was able to read, and 
he and his father frequently sat up all night indulging in 
the intoxication of pathetic love stories and exciting tales 
of adventure. When he was seven, they read Bossuet's 
Lectures on Universal History, Ovid's Metamorphoses, and 
Plutarch's Lives. The last of these especially fascinated 

255 



256 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

him and inflamed him with passionate republican and 
heroic sentiment. All tended to make him extreme in 
sensibility and leave him destitute of the moral fibre 
that comes by discipline. Nothing in his experience 
afterwards corrected this. 

At eight he was placed, together with his cousin, in 
charge of a clergyman in a small village near Geneva. 
He received lax training there for two years, and learned 
little except to love ardently the freshness and beauty of 
the country. The happiness of those years ended with 
a severe punishment which he received for a slight 
offence, and against which he bitterly rebelled. 

He was later apprenticed first to a notary and then to 
an engraver. At the age of sixteen he ran away because 
of alleged coarse and violent treatment. He had thus 
early developed a number of loose and vicious habits. 

After a varied and unclean vagabond life, he went to 
Paris in 1741. He there became the protege of promi- 
nent people and the intimate acquaintance of eminent 
Literary Htcrary leaders. He produced plays and 

Career. opcras that wou him some fame. At this 

time he took up with a coarse, illiterate woman named 
Therese Le Vasseur. Their five children he placed in 
foundling institutions and entirely lost sight of them. 

He achieved his first really striking success by win- 
ning a prize with an essay on the subject. Has the res- 
toration of the sciences contributed to purify or to corrupt 
morals f In this essay he tried, with dazzling eloquence, 
to prove that science and art, social organization and 
culture, have deluded and corrupted human life, and 
that the nobility of truth, purity, virtue, and courage are 



JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU 257 

to be sought in a state of Nature, in the life of the 
"noble savage." 

He followed this work with another on the subject, 
What is the origin of inequality among men, and is it au- 
thorized by natural lawf In it he attributed the \ice, 
misery, and slavery of human society to inequality, and 
inequality to the establishment of law and private prop- 
erty, the institution of the magistracy, and the assump- 
tion of arbitrary power. 

He added to these the Social Contract. In this work 
he proposed an organization of society that should be 
governed by the general vrill, and should preserve all the 
individual members free and equal in the enjoyment of 
their natural rights. 

Rousseau's great work on education, Emile, belongs to 
this series, and was the third in the order of publication. 
Many things in it are directly traceable to Montaigne and 
Locke, but the general character of the work was deter- 
mined by the author's social theories, and by his peculiar 
character and disposition. 

Rousseau wrote Emile partly as a formal treatise, 
partly as a romance. Emile is a boy, and his educa- 
tion is described in the book. 

The key to the theory propounded in Emile is con- 
tained in the first propositions. " Everything is good as 
it comes from the hands of the Author of 

The 

Nature ; but everything degenerates in the introductiou 
hands of man. ... He overturns every- ^^mue. 

thing, disfigures everything ; he loves deformity, mon- 
sters ; he will have nothing as Nature made it, not even 
man ; like a saddle-horse, man must be trained for man's 

17 



258 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

service, — he must be made over according to his fancy, 
like a tree in his garden." " We must be educated be- 
cause we are born weak." " We derive this education 
from Nature, from men, or from things." "Each of us 
is thus formed by three kinds of teachers." "He in 
whom they all agree, in whom they all tend to the same 
end, — he alone moves towards his destiny and consist- 
ently lives; he alone is well educated." "Since men 
cannot control Nature, only partly control the education 
of things, and can control their own educational efforts, 
they must make their own education and that of things, 
as far as they can, conform to Nature." 
In consequence of these propositions, — 

1. Emile must be removed to the country, where the 
Logical corrupting influences of civilization are least 
Consequences, concentrated. 

2. His growth must be as nearly spontaneous as 
possible. 

3. He must not learn to read until he is twelve, and 
read but little. 

4. His teacher must not exercise authority over 
him. 

5. The teacher must not even teach him anything in 
the ordinary sense of the word, only bring him into such 
contact with things that he may make the desired dis- 
coveries for himself and act of his own accord. 

6. The teacher is to do all this so skilfully that he 
really controls and directs all Emile's activity, though 
the boy thinks that he does it all himself. 

His education is divided into four periods, those of 
infancy, childhood, boyhood, and adolescence. 



JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU 259 

In his infancy Emile's mother must be his nurse. If 
capable, his parents should continue to be his teachers, 
otherwise he should be removed from them. infancy 

It happens that he is early left an orphan, so (5 years). 

his tutor, Rousseau, becomes his inseparable and exclu- 
sive companion. 

He is allowed to suffer the natural consequences of 
his acts. He gets needed help when he cries for it, but 
when his cries arise from caprice or obstinacy no help 
is given. He is bathed in water varying from hot to 
cold, and is allowed no swaddling-clothes nor go-carts. 
No medicines are administered to him. His physicians 
are temperance and labor. He is permitted to have 
neither bells nor toys, but is encouraged to amuse him- 
self with flowers and poppy-heads. He is not hurried 
to learn to talk. 

Emile is not taught in the second period as a man for a 
man's life. He is taught as a child and for a child's life. 
He is not protected from the accidents inci- cuidhood 
dent to his age, nor humored in his suffer- (from 5 to 12). 
ings. From them he learns fortitude and prudence. To 
avoid insincerity, he learns no formulas of politeness. 
He hears nothing of duty and obligation, nothing of good 
and evil, as these things are not the business of a child. 
He is never commanded to do anything. He receives no 
verbal lessons. He is never punished. If he breaks a 
window, it is not mended for him ; but the wind is al- 
lowed to blow over him night and day, even if he grows 
sick. He does not learn to read, neither does he study 
the languages, nor history. He learns nothing by heart. 

He gets much exercise and plenty of sleep. He is 



260 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

obliged to wear scanty clothing and sleep on a hard bed. 
He becomes accustomed to darkness by playing games 
at night. He becomes hardy and venturesome by climb- 
ing trees, scaling rocks, and leaping over brooks. 

He learns to swim and to use all his senses. He 
learns the weight of bodies at sight, and the proper 
length of levers by moving bodies with them. He learns 
to measure distances by such devices as putting up 
swings and running races. He learns to draw by making 
pictures of the things around him, and he decorates his 
rooms with the drawings as an incentive to effort. He 
also learns to sing by note. 

When Emile is a boy it is still the tutor's main busi- 
ness to shield him from error. He must yet do nothing 
Boyhood agaiust his will. He must learn only what is 

(from 12 to 15). uscful, and Rousseau's idea of the useful is 
very materialistic. He must discover facts in physics, 
geography, and astronomy by observation and experi- 
ment, and determine their relations for himself 

He studies the hills, roads, and streams in his neigh- 
borhood, and makes maps of them. About noon one 
day the tutor contrives to have himself and Emile ap- 
parently lost in the forest, and Emile is led to find the 
way home by means of the sun's shadow. 

In this period, too, Emile learns a trade, — one that is 
genteel, that will not soil his hands nor his clothing too 
much, nor destroy the proportions of his figure. Now 
he also learns to read. His chief reading is Robinson 
Crusoe, that he may learn the delight and glory of irre- 
sponsible, natural life, and the dignity and pleasure of 
self-help. 



JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU 261 

Rousseau assumes that prior to the age of fifteen 
Emile has capacity to think only of himself and under- 
stand only his relations to natural objects. Adolescence 
He thinks that the ability to understand and (from 15 to 20). 
appreciate relation to men comes with adolescence. So 
Emile in his adolescent period develops his affections 
and his moral and religious sentiments. He is brought 
into contact with the humble and unfortunate phases of 
human life to protect him from pride, vanity, and envy, 
and to awaken within him sentiments of pity and sym- 
pathy and ideas of goodness and justice. He now also 
begins to feel grateful to his tutor, and thus gives the 
latter a stronger hold upon him. 

To preserve him from exaggerated self-love he is ex- 
posed to the arts of knaves and sharpers. He studies 
history to enable him to estimate human life properly. 
He also reads fables so that their indirect moral lessons 
may improve him without giving him offence. 

To arm him against the passions that now begin to 
stir within him he learns religion, to know the God 
of that nature which he has previously studied. He is 
not instructed in the doctrine of any sect. He is ex- 
pected to connect himself with such denomination as 
may commend itself to his judgment. 

Emile's education is now completed and he is ready 
for a life companion. She is found for him in the person 
of Sophie. The last chapters in the book describe her 
education. 

Sophie is educated as a woman to be a woman, just 
as Emile has been educated to be a man. Women must 
be educated with reference to men, to please them, to 



262 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

be useful to them, to make themselves loved by them, 

counsel them, console them, and make life agreeable 

and sweet for them. Sophie, therefore, is 

Sophie. 

brought up to be strong and robust. She 
learns to sew, embroider, and make lace. She does not 
learn to read and write early. Most women abuse these 
arts. She learns to be obedient and industrious, and 
develops gentleness and patience so she may endure 
without complaint the wrongs inflicted by a husband. 
She is allowed to dance and sing. She must accept her 
mother's religion, because she cannot understand such 
matters. She forms good taste in dress, and studies 
men that she may know how to please Emile, and by 
pleasing him govern him. Truly, Rousseau's theory 
of female education does not reveal high estimates of 
womanhood. 

Of all pedagogical works, Emile is one of the most 
interesting to study, but it must be read with critical 
Defects thoughtfulness. Like its author, it is un- 

of Emile. sound in logic and rebellious against society. 

It abounds in contradictions and extravagant paradoxes. 
It is erratic, generous in its impulses, brilliant, ardent. 

Rousseau's fundamental blunder is his proposal to 
give to a social being an unsocial education. Society 
embodies the attainments and energy of racial develop- 
ment. It does not necessarily corrupt. Under proper 
conditions it completes, it stimulates, it enriches. His 
fellows contribute to the moral and intellectual develop- 
ment of the individual what nothing else can. Emile's 
religious education illustrates the fallacy of the scheme. 
However plausible and attractive his natural deism may 



JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU 263 

seem, it will not bear close inspection. It is a mere 
matter of sentiment. Beautiful it may be, but it lacks 
the substance and power of a truly ethical religion. 

Rousseau exa^erates the principle of personal obser- 
vation and inference and opposition to book learning into 
a serious pedagogical error. It robs Emile of the heritage 
of the past and the help of the present. Such a system 
would render the race static, non-progressive. 

In spite of Rousseau's keen insight into many phases 
of child nature and development, his knowledge of chil- 
dren was very defective. The periods in Emile's educa- 
tion present many artificial and unnatural leaps and 
breaks. The attractive summaries of results with which 
Rousseau flatters himself are by no means warranted by 
fact. 

Emile was, in truth, an impossible boy subjected to an 
impossible education. He was the creation of the not 
overhealthy imagination of Rousseau working upon the 
irregular and abnormal experiences of his life, and fash- 
ioned under the influence of the theories of Montaigne 
and Locke. There is, probably, no main proposition in 
the book that will bear close logical inspection. Its 
brightest feature is the passionate love of nature which 
pervades it. This is traceable to the author's sensitive 
disposition and the tutelage he received at the home of 
the clergyman near Geneva. It grew with all the vicissi- 
tudes of his strange life. 

With all its defects, Emile is a strong book. It created 
an epoch m educational history. It presents such de- 
tails of observational and experimental work in elemen- 
tary training as had never before been attempted. It 



264 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

gives strong emphasis to the common interests of hu- 
manity, which are often sacrificed in educating a boy to 
be a priest, a soldier, or a citizen. With all its 
mistakes, it presents the details of child de- 
velopment with such convincing clearness and force that 
it has given an impetus to child study. More important 
than all else, it teaches, as even Comenius did not, that 
education consists not in bondage to any tradition of 
learning nor any form of scholarship whatever, but in 
the development of the man. 

The book was written in a marvellously clear and bril- 
liant style. It came to men when they were eager for 
just such truth as it contained, and it took a magical 
hold upon their minds. It inspired and directed men 
of much nobler type than the author, and through them 
it has achieved great and useful changes in elementary 
education. 



XXIII 

THE PHILANTHROPIN AND OTHER 
DEVELOPMENTS 

The first experiment inspired by Emile was made in 
an institution known as the Pliilanthropin. Its name 
was to indicate that it was actuated by love origin of the 
for humanity and designed to promote a Phiianthropin. 
truly human education. It was located, under the pa- 
tronage of Prince Leopold, at Dessau, not far from 
Kothen, where Ratich had made his famous experiment. 
Its founder was Basedow, who opened it with boastful 
claims very similar to those of Ratich, and no less 
extravagant. 

Basedow was from the north of Germany. He had 
prepared himself for the Lutheran ministry, but was 
not ordained because he lacked orthodoxy. He taught 
for a time as a private tutor, and afterwards 

Its Founder. 

as a gymnasium professor. He was very 
successful as a tutor because of the intelligence and 
originality of his methods. By means of conversation 
exercises concerning the birds, plants, and other objects 
about them, he soon taught his pupils to talk Latin 
almost as well as their mother-tongue. 

Under the influence of Rousseau he was led to form 
comprehensive plans for the reform of education. The 
chief results were two works, a Book of Methods and an 

265 



266 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Elementary Booh. A lai^e part of the latter was modeled 
after the Orhis Pictus of Comenius. 

The Philanthropin was founded to carry his plans into 
execution. It had the endorsement of eminent men, 
including Immanuel Kant, the great philosopher. In 
fact, Basedow had made considerable stir throughout 
Europe, going about with his queer personality, but with 
irresistible enthusiasm, to solicit help for the publication 
of the Elementary Book He received liberal contribu- 
tions from Emperor Joseph II., Catherine II., of Russia, 
and from Christian VII., of Denmark. 

The Philanthropin was opened in 1774. That it was 
not a servile effort to carry out the ideas of Rousseau 
may be known from the fact that Wolke, one of its lead- 
ing teachers, had, under the direction of Basedow, taught 
the latter's daughter to speak and read with ease German, 
French, and Latin by the time she was five years 
old. 

The boys and girls in the Philanthropin were dressed 
plainly and with reference to comfort and freedom of 
Physical movement. The shirts of the boys were 

Training. made with wide collars turned down over 
their jackets and open at the neck. Their hair was cut 
short. This was in revolt against the long, powdered 
hair and dandified dress that was the prevailing style 
with the children of those who could afford it. For the 
first time in the school history of Germany, the boys 
were given gymnastic training. They were also encour- 
aged to play much in the open air, and were taken on 
excursions into the country. For manual training they 
were taught carpentering and turning with the lathe. 



THE PHILANTHROPIN AND OTHER DEVELOPMENTS 267 

Latin and French the pupils learned through conver- 
sation exercises based on models and pictures, and in 
games. They learned first to speak and The 

afterwards to read and translate. The Languages. 
methods are perhaps best revealed in exercises witnessed 
and reported by visitors to an examination. 

In one exercise in Latin the pupils were all made to 
stand in a row. Wolke then issued commands in Latin, 
which they obeyed. When he said " Circumspicite," 
they all looked around in different directions. When he 
said "Imitamini sutorem," they pretended to draw 
waxed threads Hke cobblers. In a similar exercise he 
ordered them to imitate the sounds of different animals. 
At command, they roared like lions, barked like dogs, or 
mewed like cats. 

In one exercise somebody wrote a word on the back 
of the board, and the pupils were told to what depart- 
ment of knowledge it belonged. They then tried to 
guess the word. For instance, if it was the name of a 
part of the body, they named over the different parts 
of the body that occurred to them, as " caput," " os," 
"oculi," "nasus," "digiti," until some one hit upon the 
word selected. 

In still another exercise, Wolke placed himself at the 
board with crayon and asked the children what he 
should draw. Some one answered " Leonem." He 
pretended to draw a lion, but put a beak on it. The 
children immediately shouted " Non est leo, leones non 
habent rostrum." And so they continued, he to blunder 
purposely in the drawing and they to correct him, until 
the work was finished. 



268 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

At this examination, too, the children acted comedies, 
one in French and one in German, 

The pupils drew much. Following Rousseau in this, 

they made pictures of the things about them. They 

seem to have received good training in arith- 

Other Studies. , . , -, , • • mi 

metic, geometry, and trigonometry. Ihe 
text-books prepared by the teachers of mathematics 
were widely used. There was nature study, geography, 
physics, and astronomy. These studies were supposed 
to be, and largely were, based on observation, but the 
work was poor. It lacked system, and was mixed with 
all sorts of foreign and incomprehensible material. 

The religion of the school was a natural deism and 
the liturgy and worship undenominational. This was in 
harmony with the general spirit of the Phi- 
lanthropin, and was expected to make it 
generally acceptable, but it failed to do so. When the 
teacher thought the time had come to awaken the idea 
of God in a pupil and lead him to reverence and grati- 
tude, he kept him in the house four or five days, so that 
he might be specially impressed with the wonders and 
beauties of creation when again allowed to behold them, 
and thus be prepared for the declaration that God made 
them all. 

Basedow dropped out of the institution in a few years 
because of quarrels. For a time Wolke was at its head. 
Latermstoryof ^^ different times strong men, like Salzman 
phiianthropin. and Campe, were connected with it, and left 
it to found similar institutions in different parts of Ger- 
many. One also was established in Switzerland. Some 
of the teachers were called to other schools as training 



THE PHILANTHROPIN AND OTHER DEVELOPMENTS 269 

teachers. The Philanthropin was closed in 1793. It 
failed from lack of support occasioned by overcrowding 
the course, by improper grading of work, by failure to 
adapt work to conditions beyond its walls, and by the 
unpopularity of its deism. Most of the similar institu- 
tions continued a sickly existence for a time until they 
were superseded by the reforms instituted by Pestalozzi. 
They served a useful purpose. They introduced more 
rational methods and other much-needed reforms even 
into the schools that derided them. Some of the work 
was excellent and anticipated the best of its kind done 
now. 

In the development of all grades of educational work 
in the eighteenth century Germany led the way. Among 
the German states, Prussia made the greatest Growth in 
advance in elementary instruction. In the EiemTifu^ 
reign of Frederick the Great alone there Education. 
were established in the realm about seventeen hundred 
elementary schools. In the extent of state support of 
elementary education, only Austria outrivaled Germany. 
The extension and improvement attempted by Maria 
Theresa with the help of Felbiger were continued by 
her successors until near the close of the century, when 
a clerical reaction seriously injured the work. In the 
reign of Maria Theresa, Ferdinand Kindermann in Bo- 
hemia added instruction in local industries to elementary 
training. 

The century saw the beginning of public schools in 
Denmark and of compulsory education in Norway. In 
France the schools of the Christian Brothers multiplied 
rapidly. The French Revolution led to the enactment 



270 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

of many decrees to organize and improve education on 
a state basis and establish normal schools, but little of 
practical value resulted. 

Among the great educational events v\ras the founding 
of the Sunday-school. This was not a new institution, 
The Sunday- ^^^ ^ revival of a very old one. It had its 
Schools. prototype in the Hebrew Bible school. At 

different periods in the history of Christendom some- 
what similar schools had arisen. When St. Carlo Bor- 
romeo, archbishop of Milan, died, in 1584, he left seven 
hundred and forty-three Sunday-schools as the result 
of his interest in the religious instruction of children. 
In the seventeenth century Sunday-schools were estab- 
lished at different places in England and New England. 
In Pennsylvania the Schwenkfelders had Sunday-schools 
as early as 1734, and Ludwig Hocker, of the Dunkard 
Brethren, opened one at Ephrata, Lancaster County, in 
1740. The great Sunday-school interest of the present 
time, however, seems to have had its principal source in 
the work of Robert Raikes. 

Raikes was editor of a newspaper in Gloucester, Eng- 
land. With the help of a few friends he opened a 
Sunday-school in 1780. He was moved to this by the 
miserable condition of the children of the poor. Many 
of them lacked both secular and religious training, and 
it occurred to him that it would be well to gather them 
in on the Sabbath day from the filth and riot of the 
streets, and instruct them in the elements of religion 
and in reading and singing. The effort prospered. In 
his enthusiasm Raikes advertised the work in his paper, 
and soon inspired others to imitate him. 



THE PHILANTHROPIN AND OTHER DEVELOPMENTS 271 

The Sunday-school work has assumed immense pro- 
portions. In the United States alone there are now 
connected with Sunday-schools as teachers and pupils 
about fourteen millions of people. The beneficence of 
the institution cannot be estimated, and its possibilities 
have not yet been exhausted nor even comprehended. 

When the century opened, the universities had already 
deeply felt the influence of the great scientific discoveries 
of the preceding century, of the mathemati- j,^^ 

cal achievements of Descartes, Leibnitz, and universities. 
Newton, and of the philosophical theories of men like 
Bacon, Descartes, Leibnitz, and Locke. 

Now they began to undergo a very great transforma- 
tion. The new humanism affected the universities just 
as it did the secondary schools, but yet the Latin tongue 
did not maintain its former position. It was no longer 
regarded as necessary for scholarly use. Professors 
generally dropped it and lectured in the mother-tongue. 

A new thought, latent in the character of the univer- 
sity from the beginning, was now boldly asserted and 
accepted, at least in Germany. Grundling first uttered it. 
In a public dissertation at Halle he declared that the 
true office of the university is "to guide to the capability 
of distinguishing truth from falsehood . . . which is im- 
possible if any limits are set to free investigation." He 
was the advance herald of many bold ventures in thought 
and investigation, for which the world is deeply indebted 
to the universities. 

The greatest changes were wrought in the depart- 
ment of philosophy, and the man who of all most pro- 
foundly affected the trend of philosophic thought was 



272 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Immanuel Kant, of Konigsberg. He performed valiant 
service for pedagogy, too, by taking kindly interest in 
educational reforms, theories, and experiments, and by 
delivering valuable and influential lectures on pedagogy 
in the university. 

In this century, also, began a real intellectual awaken- 
ing in Russia, and effective contributions were made to 
higher education. In it were established the Imperial 
Academy of Sciences and the Imperial Russian Academy. 

In the American colonies, and in the Union after it 
was formed, conditions were not favorable to educational 
activity. This is especially true of the second half of 
the century. The French and Indian War and the War 
of Independence exhausted the people and resulted in 
Growth in Hiuch coufusiou and uncertainty. Yet a 
America. surprisiugly large number of colleges were 
founded, — twenty-two in the course of the century. 
The most prominent of these were Harvard, Yale, 
Princeton, the University of Pennsylvania, and Columbia. 

There was an increase in the number of public ele- 
mentary schools in the northern colonies and States, but 
little change in the studies and methods of teaching. 
New York, in 1795, appropriated one hundred thousand 
dollars a year for five years to aid the schools. 

The most notable event of the century was the action 

of the national government with respect to education. 

The nature of its organization prevented it 

National ^ ^ 

School from establishing and controlling schools in 

Legislation. ^^^ several States. Even yet national or- 
ganization of education is apparently a matter of the 
very distant future. The cession of the Northwest 



THE PHILANTHROPIN AND OTHER DEVELOPMENTS 273 

Territory, however, led to the adoption of a pohcy by 
which the nation has contributed very materially to the 
development of both elementary and higher education. 
The government of no other country has contributed 
so much. 

In 1785 an act was passed setting aside the sixteenth 
section of every township in the Territory for public 
schools. A supplementary act, passed in 1787, gave to 
each new State to be formed out of the Territory two 
townships for a university. The policy was afterwards 
applied to all new territory acquired by the nation, 
when it was possible to do so. Thus the new States 
added to the Union started into existence with perma- 
nent school funds. 

Washington advocated the founding of a national 
university in the District of Columbia. In his will he 
bequeathed fifty shares in the Potomac Company towards 
the endowment of such an institution. The project has 
been revived and discussed at different times since, but 
nothing definite has ever come of it. 



HISTORICAL SUMMARY 

Yale University founded ..... 
Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences founded 
Rollin's Treatise on Studies published 
Teacher's Seminary founded at Stettin . 
Pedagogical Seminar established in Gottingen University 
Princeton University founded .... 

Hecker's Real School opened in Berlin . 
Hecker's Teachers' Seminary opened 
University of Pennsylvania founded 
Columbia University founded .... 

18 



1701 
1724 
1726-28 
1735 
1738 
1746 
1747 
1748 
1749 
1764 



274 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION 



Rousseau's Emile published . 

Normal School established in Vienna 

Philanthropin opened .... 

American Revolution begun . 

Ludwig Hocker opened a Sunday-school 

Robert Raikes opened a Sunday-school . 

United States Government set aside public land for schools 

United States Government set aside public land for univer- 
sities ......... 

French Revolution begun ...... 

New York appropiated one hundred thousand dollars to aid 
schools . . . 



1762 
1771 
1774 
1775 
1740 
1780 
1785 

1787 
1789 

1795 



PART VI 

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 

HUMANE EDUCATION 



XXIV 

CHARACTER OF CENTURY AND EARLY 
CHANGES 

The advancement of every form of educational effort 
in the nineteenth century was without parallel. This 
is particularly true of popular elementary education. 
Wonderful to contemplate are the depth and extent of 
the interest it claimed, the amount of money invested 
for its maintenance and promotion, the thought devoted 
to it, and the high character of the work which distin- 
guished it. Interest in popular education, more than any 
thing else, created a science of education and imparted 
new dignity and enthusiasm to the teacher. After many 
centuries, teachers began to realize the true character of 
the mission bequeathed to them by the Great Teacher, 
and the work of the school-room became pervaded by 
the spirit of the Master as never before. 

The educational progress of the century can be traced 
to many causes ; but, beyond a doubt, the following are 
the principal ones : 

1. The American and French Revolutions. These stirred 
society to its depth and gave a wonderful impetus to- 
wards the establishment of human rights and free govern- 
ment. In their train have followed the freedom of the 
slave in Christian countries and the extension of the 
right of suffrage. These have imposed the necessity of 
making education general as a means of protecting and 

277 



278 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

preserving society. But more than that, they have invested 
the individual "with such dignity and importance that the 
people, as a whole, and individuals interested in their 
welfare, demand high-grade educational advantages for all, 

2. The unprecedented multiplication of inventions^ dis- 
coveries, and manufactures, and the consequent extension 
and complication of commercial enterprise. These have 
put a premium upon education by demanding and re- 
warding well a high grade of intelligence and training. 

3. The triumphs of the great scientists. Since the first 
quarter of the century natural science has been re- 
created. The development of the theory of evolution 
has wrought a revolution in almost every department of 
human thought as radical as that of the Revival of Learn- 
ing. By virtue of this vigorous influence, new sciences 
have been created and old ones regenerated. There is 
a new history, a new philology, a new philosophy, as 
well as a new natural science. Among the rest is a new 
psychology. It tests every nerve in the human body ; it 
experiments upon every phase of human consciousness ; 
it jealously watches every minute of child life lest it miss 
any manifestation of mental activity or any trace of a 
condition thereto ; it questions ancestry ; it studies the 
growing mind of the race in its myths, literature, and 
every other form of expression ; it even searches into 
the mystery of animal intelligence ; and all in order that 
it may give a complete account of mental functions, their 
history, conditions, and laws of development. Now all 
this has given a new meaning to the old terms " accord- 
ing to nature" and " realistic study," has revolutionized 
educational methods, and created a new pedagogy. 



CHARACTER OF CENTURY AND EARLY CHANGES 279 

4. The improved social position of women. The extent 
to which legal and political rights have been extended 
to women, the preference given to them as teachers in 
many grades of school-work, and the numerous occupa- 
tions of profit and honor opened to them, have given a 
powerful impetus to female education. It has not only 
led to the founding of many high-grade institutions for 
girls and women, but has also thrown open to them the 
doors of many that were originally intended for male 
students only. 

The century opened with great promise. In 1802 
England gave the first evidence, since the time of Alfred 
the Great, of state interest in elementary edu- introductory 
cation. A law was passed restricting the changes. 

labor of children in factories, and requiring that they be 
taught reading, writing, and arithmetic a part of each 
day. No provisions were, however, made for the in- 
struction, so no practical good resulted. But two move- 
ments about this time in some measure did what the 
state failed to do. 

In 1798 Joseph Lancaster, moved by intense enthusi- 
asm for the instruction of the poor, opened a school for 
them in London. Its attendance soon grew Joseph 

from a hundred to a thousand. In order to Lancaster. 
teach so many \vith the limited means which came to 
him in the form of gifts or as tuition fees from those who 
could afford to pay, he hit upon the plan of employing 
the older and brighter pupils as assistant teachers. 
These assistants were called monitors. They were first 
drilled in the school exercises themselves by the head- 
teachers, and afterwards they taught their fellows the 



280 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

same exercises. This school excited great public enthu- 
siasm. The king, the nobles, and the gentry contributed 
liberally to the support of it and similar schools. Soon 
nearly every city in England had a Lancasterian school. 

To help Lancaster financially, a society was formed in 
1808. It assumed the title "British and Foreign School 
Society." It was soon obliged to push Lancaster aside 
because of his vanity and improvidence. The society 
was made up of Dissenters. 

Dr. Andrew Bell had been a chaplain and teacher in 

India. While there, he learned the monitorial system 

from the Hindoo teachers, and employed it. 

Bell and the ' ^ '' 

National He published an account of it in England in 

Society. 1797. His friends claimed that Lancaster 

had taken the suggestion from this account. The ad- 
herents of the Established Church were dissatisfied with 
the Lancasterian schools because they did not teach the 
doctrines of the Episcopal Church. They formed the 
" National Society," and established monitorial schools, 
under the leadership of Dr. Bell, to promote the interests 
of their church among the poor. 

Rivalry between the two organizations multiplied these 
schools very rapidly. The teaching in them was me- 
chanical and poor enough, but they gave to England 
something more nearly approaching popular education 
than it had ever known before. 

The most advanced steps of all in the interest of 

popular education early in the century were taken by 

Prussia. The peace of Tilsit, in 1807, left 

Germany. 

Frederick William III. crushed and humili- 
ated and in possession of little more than half of his 



CHARACTER OF CENTURY AND EARLY CHANGES 281 

former kingdom. He turned to education as a means 
of imparting new life and new glory to his country. On 
the basis of the decrees of Frederick the Great, he gave 
the educational work of Prussia a state organization. In 
its general features it was similar to that of the present 
time. Attendance at school was made compulsory. So 
Prussia led the way in making Germany the foremost 
educational country in the world. 

In France the measures of the Revolution to promote 
elementary and higher education were rendered abortive 
by the unsettled state of affairs. Napoleon 

France. 

I. sought to bring order out of chaos. He 
devised a form of organization which has, with some 
modifications, continued to the present time. It was 
very compact, and its control was given to the state. 
All the schools and teaching bodies were made to con- 
stitute the Imperial University. Families and religious 
organizations had the right to establish schools, but were 
obliged to get license from the proper authorities in the 
university. Napoleon made no state provision for ele- 
mentary instruction ; but yet, when the demand for 
popular education came, the organization which he had 
instituted was in a position to comply effectively with it. 



XXV 

THE GREAT EDUCATORS 

In the year prior to the decree for the organization of 
the University of France there was opened at Yverdun, 
in Switzerland, a school that was for a time the most 
famous in the world. It was visited by statesmen, 
scholars, and educators from nearly every country in 
Europe and from America. It sent teachers to most of 
the important cities of Europe from St. Petersburg to 
Madrid, and at least one to America. 

The founder of this school, John Henry Pestalozzi, 
w^as one of the strangest figures ever prominent in the 
school-room. He was ungainly of form, 
awkward in movement, slovenly in dress, 
and by no means handsome of countenance. He never 
had the training of a teacher, and came to the work but 
slowly and late in life. He never could adapt himself to 
the necessary routine of school-work, and was so de- 
ficient by nature and training in practical skill for the 
management of affairs, that the schools he personally 
founded and conducted eventually failed. But there was 
a great soul in the man, and his soul went into his 
work. No other man has so thoroughly stamped the im- 
press of his personality and genius upon the growth of 
modern elementary education. He was born in Ziirich 
in 1746. 
282 



THE GREAT EDUCATORS 283 

Pestalozzi was extremely sensitive and had a lively 
imagination, a combination naturally unpractical. It 
was made more so in his case by early train- „ 

'' "' Temperament 

ing. His mother, widowed when he was a and 

little child, brought him up as a household isposiuon. 
tenderling ; behind the stove, as he termed it. If men 
of his stamp are intense enough in feeling and purpose 
they make good reformers, and Pestalozzi was intense 
enough to be one of the noblest of all reformers. Once 
when elated at the pleased visit of a nobleman to his 
school, he struck a key with his arm in the impetuous 
movements of his enthusiasm. The blow bent the key, 
though it was half an inch thick, yet he never discovered 
that he had hit it until an hour afterwards, when he 
sought the cause of a painful swelling of his arm. 

He was an ardent disciple of Rousseau. It took him 
a long time to break away from some of the misleading 
theories made plausible by the latter's seductive elo- 
quence. But Pestalozzi belonged to a very different 
order of men. He was, above all things else, a patriot 
and a philanthropist. He was a lineal successor of the 
early Swiss patriots and of the lovable yet heroic figures 
of the Swiss Reformation. 

The best revelation of the man's innermost soul is 
found in a letter written to the lady of his choice, Anna 
Schulthess, whom he afterwards married. Pestaiozzi-s 
The following is the substance of the letter : Love-Letter. 
" My dear friend, — I shall now reveal myself frankly to 
you, let you look as deeply into my soul as I am able to 
penetrate myself. I am improvident and incautious, and 
lack presence of mind in unexpected changes of prospect. 



284 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

I may not conceal these defects from the maiden I love, 
though I may in some measure overcome them. I am 
extreme in praise and blame, and in my likes and dis- 
likes. I am negligent in matters of etiquette and in all 
other things of little importance. . . . 

" I must also confess to you that I shall always sub- 
ordinate my duty to my wife to the duty I owe to my 
country. Though I shall be the tenderest of husbands, 
I shall always consider it my duty to remain inexorable 
to the tears of my wife if she ever seeks with them to keep 
me from the performance of my duty as a citizen. My life 
will not pass without important and critical undertakings. 
No fear of men shall ever keep me from speaking, if my 
country's need commands me to speak. My whole 
heart belongs to my country. I shall risk everything to 
alleviate the misery and need of my people." 

The condition of the masses of the people appealed 
to him. It was miserable in the extreme. The nobles 
oppressed them, they were ignorant and superstitious, 
and, too often, thriftless, dissolute, and dishonest. As 
predicted in his letter, his whole life was dedicated to 
their deliverance. He first thought to work 

First Efforts. 

for their good as a minister, but broke down 
in his first sermon. He next turned to the study of law, 
in order that he might champion the peasants in the 
courts. He studied so hard that his health failed. He 
then conceived the idea that the poor lands of Switzer- 
land might be made profitable by the cultivation of 
madder. Accordingly, he bought a farm to try the experi- 
ment. He built a house upon it, and called the place 
Neuhof, — New Farm. The madder culture was not 



THE GREAT EDUCATORS 285 

profitable, and his financial backers in Ziirich withdrew 
their support. 

When the farm failed, Pestalozzi, in 1775, began on it 
his career as a teacher in a noble way. He opened an 
industrial school. He gathered together ^^ ^ _, , . , 

° ° The Industnal 

about fifty poor children, whose labor was school at 
to pay for their instruction and maintenance. ^^ 

He taught them to work on the farm in summer, to spin 
and weave in winter. He taught them also the use of 
language, singing, and the reading of the Bible. This 
was a forerunner of many similar institutions that have 
since blessed humanity, but it was not successful. Pes- 
talozzi was injudicious in his grading of the work in 
weaving, and the parents and children returned his be- 
nevolence with ungrateful dishonesty. The children were 
often withdrawn from the school after receiving a new 
suit of clothes for which they had as yet given no return. 
In five years the experiment ended in disastrous failure. 
It had cost his wife's money and left him heavily in- 
volved in debt besides. 

In the eighteen years that followed the failure of the 
industrial school, Pestalozzi was engaged in a melancholy 
struggle with poverty. Often at meal-time pirst ESorts m 
there was scarcely a crust in the house. In Authorship. 
this time he won fame as an author. In 1780 he pub- 
lished The Evening Hours of a Hermit, and the next year 
Leonard and Gertrude. In the former work he put into 
aphorisms all the best things advocated in pedagogical 
literature since the time of Comenius. To what extent 
he borrowed from others is hard to tell ; but, whether 
much or little, all was stated in his own inspiring 



286 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

way and made alive with his sweet and generous 
spirit. 

Leonard and Gertrude is a realistic story of the Swiss 
peasant life that Pestalozzi thoroughly knew and pitied. 
Leonard and ^^e numerous characters of the story are 
Gertrude. clearly drawn and life-like. Ignorance 
abounds in the village, drinking, laziness, superstition, 
dishonesty, trickery, and gossip are as prevalent. The 
village is transformed by the efforts of the good magis- 
trate Arner and the influence of Gertrude. By means 
of her good sense and devotion the latter works a reform 
in her rather weak, drinking, and gambling husband, and 
obtains good employment for him from Arner. She 
teaches her own children spinning and other home in- 
dustries, maxims, hymns, prayers, cleanliness, honesty, 
and good manners. She carefully trains them in lan- 
guage and numbers by means of their other exercises, 
skilfully weaving all into natural and inspiring relation. 
After a time the children of a neighbor are permitted 
to receive training with her own. When eventually 
Arner opens a village school, it takes its character from 
the principles and methods of Gertrude's home school, 
and Arner and the teacher both seek her advice. 

Other works followed this, but none of them were 
really successful. This was. It presents Pestalozzi's 
idea of social reform and the general features of his 
future educational system. Its scenes are some humor- 
ous, some pathetic, and all instructive. It has done 
much good. It is pitiful to read that when the govern- 
ment of Berne presented the author a gold medal he 
was obliged to sell it for bread. 



THE GREAT EDUCATORS 287 

In 1798 Stanz was burned by the French. A revolu- 
tionary republic had been established in Switzerland in 
the social upheaval consequent upon the French Revo- 
lution. Pestalozzi was in sympathy with the new gov- 
ernment. The ravages of the war left many poor and 
orphaned children at Stanz. He received an 
appointment to open a school there. A part 
of an unfinished Ursuline convent was assigned to the 
school. With one housekeeper, Pestalozzi made his 
home there in charge of about eighty children. They 
ranged in age from four to ten. They were ragged and 
dirty. He undertook to be at once father, mother, and 
teacher to them. 

As at Neuhof, he combined manual training with 
teaching. There were lessons from six to eight in the 
morning and from four to eight in the evening. The 
intervening time was devoted to labor. There Methods at 
were no books, and scarcely a child knew stanz. 

his letters. To accomplish as much as possible, Pesta- 
lozzi devised concert exercises, as had been done in the 
schools of the Christian Brothers before, and a monitorial 
system similar to that employed by Bell and Lancaster 
afterwards. Having no books, he taught things. Num- 
ber lessons and language lessons were based on the 
study and handling of objects, and geography and natural 
history were taught in conversational exercises. The 
reading lessons were combined with writing. 

Pestalozzi could not give the children special religious 
instruction, because they were Catholic and he was Re- 
formed. As occasion offered, he taught them the prac- 
tical exercise of Christian virtues. He prayed with them 



288 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

night and morning, wept with them when they were 
sad, laughed with them when they were happy. By the 
depth of his sympathy and the energy of his enthusiasm 
he accomplished astonishing results in a short time, but 
at the expense of his health. Before a year had passed 
the French returned and used the building as a hospital. 
This closed the school and saved him from complete 
physical collapse. 

For a time, after that, Pestalozzi was assistant teacher 
at Burgdorf. He was soon dismissed, partly because of 
inability to adapt himself to the routine of school work, 
but mainly because of the jealousy of the 
head-master. This was due to the strong 
hold he gained upon the affections of the pupils and the 
success of his work in spite of its irregularity. With a 
strong corps of teachers devoted to him and his methods 
he opened a private school there that became successful 
and famous. At this time he published How Gertrude 
Teaches Her Children. 

Pestalozzi was obliged to give up the building at Bui^- 
dorf for government use, and in 1805 he established his 
school in an old fortress at Yverdun. There the eyes of 
the civilized world were turned upon him. Teachers 
came to him to learn their profession anew 
and statesmen to find in his system a new 
source of life and vigor for their countries. At last all 
his ideas had an opportunity to take form in practice, 
and different departments of school work were developed 
in harmony with his views by skilful teachers. 

Nearly every feature characteristic of the methods em- 
ployed in our elementary schools to-day was tried in the 



THE GREAT EDUCATORS 289 

school at Yverdun. Pupils learned numbers by number- 
ing objects. They developed mastery of language by 
conversing and writing about things which were brought 
under their observation. They studied birds and trees 
and flowers ; and, under supervision, drew pictures of 
them, and talked and wrote about them. They made 
excursions into the country for health and observation. 
They studied the valley of the Rhone, and modelled its 
structure with clay carried back from it. They were 
introduced to the study of geometry by cutting out or 
modelling geometrical figures. It was from Yverdun 
that the new schools of Prussia and other parts of Ger- 
many took their form and drew their spirit. 

Pestalozzi seemed at last to be on the highway to suc- 
cess and fortune, but dissensions among the teachers 
weakened the school, and finally broke it up. It was 
closed in 1825, and, two years after, its founder's life 
went out in disappointment and sorrow. 

It is easy to see that Pestalozzi, like Comenius, believed 
in education as a primary means of regenerating society, 
that it reaches society through the individual, 

*' *' Review. 

and that it means for the individual the pro- 
motion of a natural development. " Sound education," 
he said, "stands before me symbolized by a tree planted 
near fertilizing waters. A little seed, which contains the 
design of the tree, its form and proportions, is placed in 
the soil. See how it germinates and expands into trunk, 
branches, leaves, flowers, and fruit ! The whole tree is 
an uninterrupted chain of organic parts, the plan of 
which existed in its seed and roots." 

He believed that intellectual growth has its basis in 

19 



290 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

direct observation, in the proper use of the senses. He 
sought to use language, drawing, and modelling as actual 
forms of expression for thoughts and feelings already 
acquired. " We learn to do by doing," the proposition 
first formulated by Comenius, he accepted, but gave it a 
wide range of application. He was convinced that to 
lead a child to perform a virtuous act cheerfully is worth 
more than a learned discourse on the subject of virtue. 
At Stanz he persuaded the children to make a sacrifice 
for similarly unfortunate children in another district by 
reminding them of what had been done for them. 

He carried his analysis of school work to extremes. 
Object-teaching was to result in a knowledge of form, 
number, and speech. These he reduced to their ele- 
ments, and insisted on having children drilled in these. 
He wanted elementary sounds repeated by the mother 
to the baby in her arms. He also had an exaggerated 
notion of the resemblance between the school and the 
home. He endeavored to introduce the relations and 
methods of home into the school, and those of the 
school into the home. He tried to so simplify the pri- 
mary work of the school that mothers, as the best 
teachers for the child, might easily apply the methods at 
home. Out of these efforts grew the Kindergarten. 

To the ideas and work of Pestalozzi must be attributed 
also the normal school as we know it now in the United 
States. It differs radically from the earlier institutions 
designed to prepare teachers. They were, in the strictest 
sense, training schools, inasmuch as all they sought to 
accomplish was to make teachers skilful in certain fixed 
methods of teaching the different branches and of main- 



THE GREAT EDUCATORS 291 

taining discipline. Sometimes they were little more than 
reviewing schools. 

Other men have been able to think more systemati- 
cally and comprehensively on education than Pestalozzi ; 
it is probable that not a single one of his main ideas 
was entirely original with him ; but yet he is the prince 
among modern educational reformers. With unsur- 
passed breadth of philanthropic spirit he seized upon 
every vital idea that had yet been advocated for the 
reform of education. What had been thoughts and 
ideas to others became more to him : they became the 
enthusiasm of his soul. He was willing to dedicate his 
life to them and to make sacrifice for their realization. 

A disciple of Pestalozzi's supplemented his work. 
This was Friedrich Froebel. He was born in a village in 
the Thuringian forest in 1782. He founded the Kinder- 
garten, — Garden of Children. This is an insti- 

® ' Froebel 

tution that has made its founder immortal. and the 

It is valuable and important not only in itself, ^^ergarten. 
but also because of its effects upon the lower grades of 
schools and upon the home life of children. Wherever 
its influence has extended, it has beneficently modified 
the spirit and exercises of the former and has made the 
latter more delightful and wholesome. 

Froebel was neglected in childhood. His mother died 
when he was an infant. His father, a Lutheran pastor, 
amid the cares of a large parish had little time for him. 
The new mother, who came in the course Formative 
of time, had the proverbial stepmother's influences. 
affection for him. In after years the memory of his 
early neglect and abuse awakened in his soul a tender 



292 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

regard for childhood and a passionate love for chil- 
dren. 

A maternal uncle took him at the age of ten and sent 
him to school in Ilm. He entered on a Monday morning. 
It was customary at that time to require the pupils to 
repeat on Monday the text of the previous Sunday's ser- 
mon. The text repeated by the children this morning 
was, " Seek ye first the kingdom of God." The school 
otherwise seems to have done him little good, but this 
text made a wonderful and lasting impression on his 
little mind ; it remained with him a living and fruitful 
remembrance. 

His father's house was closely shut in, and the clear 
mountain sky above it early won his attention. When 
his freedom from restraint brought him into contact vvdth 
the natural scenery about him, he developed, as had 
Rousseau, an intense interest in nature, a love for plant 
and flower. This was increased by subsequent experi- 
ence. At the age of fifteen he was apprenticed to a 
forester, with whom he remained two years. The for- 
ester gave him little attention, leaving him with the 
trees and his books, mainly botanical works. Froebel 
studied both industriously. The love of nature became 
with him a religion. By and by there was formed in him 
a ruling belief in the unity of nature, a unity of all things, 
because of their unity of origin and life in God. 

Froebel spent a short time at the University of Jena, 
and then drifted from place to place with frequent 

Finding his change of OCCUpatioU. At last his true mis- 
Mission, sion found him while a student of architec- 
ture in Frankfort-on-the-Main. One of his friends in 



THE GREAT EDUCATORS 293 

Frankfort, named Gruner, was the director of a model 
school. This man had learned much of the method and 
imbibed much of the spirit of Pestalozzi. He became 
intimate with Froebel, and one day told him that he was 
a born teacher and could have a position in his school. 
Froebel accepted it, and was happy through two years 
of labor there. In 1807 he went with three private 
pupils to Pestalozzi's school at Yverdun. Here he was 
both pupil and teacher. He became warmly devoted 
both to the man and to the method, accepting all Pesta- 
lozzi's principles with enthusiasm. 

Froebel left Yverdun with his life dedicated to teach- 
ing. He was filled with new ideas and theories. He 
determined to renew his university studies in order to 
fit himself more thoroughly for his work. His studies 
were interrupted by service in the Prussian army against 
the French. Over the camp-fire the ever-recurring 
theme of his talk was education, and two of his soldier 
companions, Langethal and Middendorf, became devoted 
to his theories. After peace was declared, they all, to- 
gether with Barop, a relative of Middendorf s, married 
and formed an educational community at Keilhau, in 
Thuringia. These champions of a new edu- Keiihau and 
cation struggled with poverty and disappoint- Bm-gdorf. 
ment for years so valiantly that at last their school was 
successful, and they planned branch institutions. 

One of these branch institutions Froebel opened at 
Burgdorf, where Pestalozzi had been before. Two notable 
events are connected with this school. The canton 
required its elementary teachers to spend three months 
every alternate year at Froebel's school to observe the 



294 - HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

work and receive instruction in principles and methods. 
Here, too, Froebel admitted to his school children from 
four to six, planning for them a graded course of exer- 
cises based on the games in which they delighted most. 
This was the beginning of the Kindergarten, though that 
institution was neither fully developed nor named 
here. 

Froebel opened the first fully-organized Kindergarten 
at Blankenburg, near Keilhau, in 1837. He himself in- 
^jjg vented the name. We have already seen 

Kindergarten, what importance Comenius and Pestalozzi 
attached to the mother's office as teacher, and what they 
expected her to contribute to the child's development. 
Froebel was familiar with the opinions of both. He 
agreed with them, but recognized the fact that, because 
of the lack of time and preparation on the part of the 
mothers, there must necessarily remain a gap between 
the best training of the home and that of the first school 
grade. To bridge this he devised the Kindergarten, 

Froebel observed that children are characterized by 

restless sense alertness, that they have great physical 

activity combined with fondness and taste 

Its Basis. /. I 1- e ^ 

for construction, are eager tor personal 
ownership, and are fond of company. Influenced by a 
peculiarly involved and mystical philosophy, which he 
himself could never formulate with any great degree of 
clearness and which an American can scarcely underT 
stand at all, and guided by his observations of children, 
he devised a number of gifts and exercises adapted to 
the natural endowments and activities of children. His 
object was to so direct and systematize play that it should 



THE GREAT EDUCATORS 295 

contribute the highest possible results to the develop- 
ment of the individual and the race. 

The gifts, as Froebel originally devised them, were 
five, — the ball, the sphere, the cube, the cube divided 
into eight rectangular parallelopipeds to teach 
similarity and dissimilarity, and the cube di- 
vided into twenty-seven equal cubes with some of them 
divided into prisms. The divided cubes were to be used 
as building-blocks. The choice of the ball for the first 
gift illustrates the application of his mystical philosophy. 
He expected it to exercise a peculiar influence on the 
child's mind because it is the symbol of unity. After a 
similar manner of thinking the cube was selected to 
represent unity m variety. 

To these gifts Froebel added others, as thin strips of 
wood, little sticks, and colored papers. These were to 
be used in construction exercises. The chil- 

Occupations, 

dren were put to forming figures with these Games, 

sticks, to paper-folding, paper-dotting, mat- and songs, 
weaving, drawing, coloring, and modelling. He also tried 
to give each child a plot of ground to cultivate as its own. 

He also devised movement exercises to be accom- 
panied with suitable songs. The most popular book he 
ever prepared and published was his Mother Play and 
Nursery Songs, containmg such songs and exercises with 
explanations. 

In the course of a few years the Kindergarten at Blank- 
enburg began to fail from lack of funds. Froebel had 
little more capacity for handling money than Further 

Pestalozzi. He finally closed the Kindergar- Activity. 
ten and opened an institute for the instruction of young 



296 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

teachers. He also lectured in the large towns. The 
last four years of his life were spent at Liebenstein in 
the Thuringian forest. Here he did great service by 
devoting himself to the training of women as educators. 
Among the famous women who came under his influ- 
ence there was the Baroness von Marenholtz-Biilow. 
She became a powerful champion of the Kindergarten, 
and has published the best account of Froebel's life and 
work. 

Froebel expected the German government to adopt the 
Kindergarten. He was, however, disappointed. Because 
LastDisap- ^^ ^^^ Writings of Karl Froebel, a nephew, 
pointment. the uucle also became subject to the sus- 
picion of being irreligious and a socialist. The suspicion 
was not well founded, but yet, in 1851, the govern- 
ment of Prussia forbade the establishment of schools 
governed by Froebel's principles. The interdict was 
not removed until 1860. 

Froebel's greatest literary production is the Education 
of Man. It contains the most comprehensive statement 
The Education ^f his general philosophy and of his educa- 
0/ Man. tional principles and methods, though it was 

written before the methods had received their complete 
development. It reveals at once profound thought and 
remarkable pedagogic insight and skill. 

The fundamental thought set forth in the book is that 
an eternal law rules and operates in all things. This law 
finds expression outwardly in physical nature, and in- 
wardly in the spirit. Beneath this all-pervading, all- 
powerful law lies God as a single omnipotant cause. 
This law, like its cause, is G dlike. The essential life, 



THE GREAT EDUCATORS 297 

or individuality, of everything is the divine principle 
working in it. The destiny of everything is to develop 
and exhibit this divine principle. The proper vocation 
of a man is to grow conscious of and win a clear insight 
into his divine nature, and to develop it in practice in 
his life. To educate a man is to provide in unbroken 
continuity the ways and means to bring him into con- 
sciousness of himself and to incite him to the conscious 
practice and fulfilment of the inner divine law of his 
being. In other words, education is the promotion of a 
natural process of evolution, or development. 

The child in its development, from the very beginning, 
comes under the influence of three powers, nature, ani- 
mate and inanimate, humanity, and God. God energizes 
his whole being and pervades all nature and humanity. 
Self-activity in response to this threefold activity is the 
basis of the child's development. Physical movement 
develops the body ; color and form, the eye ; music, the 
ear ; the satisfaction of the spirit of inquiry, the intellect ; 
cheerful fellowship with others, the heart and the moral 
life. Play is the natural form of a child's activity, and 
constructive exercises are the most intelligent and fruit- 
ful forms of play. Creative activity is necessary to the 
assimilation of knowledge and growth of power. It is 
the expression of self, and self is completed in expression. 

The ideas which gave rise to the Kindergarten have 
been fruitful otherwise. Froebel carried the idea of 
activity as self-expression much farther than Review of 
Pestalozzi. He declared that a child should services. 
be taught to express everything that he learns, and be 
made skilful in as many forms of expression as possible. 



298 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

He found a value peculiar to itself in each different form 
of expression. 

This theory has extended its influence through many 
grades of school work, and accounts for much of the 
stress now laid on composition, drawing, modelling, and 
manual training, and the uses to which they are put. 
His work also has given a new importance to women as 
teachers, and so increased the usefulness of womanhood. 
He put a new hand of blessing on the head of childhood, 
and his noblest monument is the Kindergarten. 

Another man ranks by the side of Pestalozzi and 
Froebel in pedagogical leadership. This is John Fred- 
erick Herbart, born in Oldenburg, Germany, in 1776. 
Herbart. ^^ scholarsliip and training he was clearly 

1776-1841. distinguished from the other two of the trio. 
He was the son of cultured parents. After receiving 
careful private instruction and passing through the gym- 
nasium, he took thorough university courses. He 
studied philosophy under Fichte at Jena. He became 
one of the most noted psychologists and philosophers of 
his time, and in 1809 was called to the chair of pliiloso- 
phy in the University of Konigsberg. This was the 
position that had been held by the great philosopher 
Kant. 

Before Herbart had completed his university studies, 

he was for a time private tutor in Berne, Switzerland. 

This intensified the interest he had already 

Early •' 

Pedagogical felt in educatiou. He placed himself in com- 
Expenence. niunicatioii with Pestalozzi and made himself 
familiar with the latter's ideas. His first published works 
were efforts to give scientific formulation to the ideas 



THE GREAT EDUCATORS 299 

which he found in the earlier writings of Pestalozzi. His 
treatise, PestalozzVs Idea of an A B C of Intuition^ was 
a work of special importance. It gave a great impetus 
to pedagogical investigation. It was the beginning of 
the author's efforts to develop a complete science of edu- 
cation, efforts that have been productive of good results. 

In addition to his lectures on philosophy at Konigs- 
berg, he established there a pedagogical seminary. He 
opened a model, or practice, school in con- 
nection with it. He taught in this every day Pedagogical 
before his students to illustrate his princi- seminary. 
pies and methods. After a time the students were also 
required to teach, and their work was subjected to criti- 
cism. 

The supreme end of education, Herbart thought, is 
the making of a religiously moral man. To accomplish 
the desired result, there must be training and Fundamental 
instruction. The first aim of instruction weas. 

must be to produce a deep and many-sided interest. 
There are two kinds of interest, interest in knowledge 
and interest in participation. The latter consists of social 
and religious interests. A knowledge interest is pleasure 
derived from the act of acquiring knowledge coupled 
with a desire for its repetition. A person, for instance, 
has interest in history when he not only has satisfac- 
tion because of what he already knows, but also has 
an appetite for more. 

The cause of interest in knowledge is apperce ption^ th p 
interpretation of new experiences in terms of old. A 
child finds something that seems entirely new. He is 
puzzled and bewildered by it ; it does not attract him. 



300 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

If, however, he discovers something familiar in the new, 
the discovery gives him pleasure, and he links the new 
to the old. The fact of apperception is vital in teaching, 
and, together with the child's present and future relation 
to society, makes the true teacher respect his pupil's 
individuality. 

Though the child's interest must be many-sided, yet 
there must be unity and system in instruction. There 
must be a proper sequence and co-ordination, correlation, 
of what is to be learned. Instruction must complement 
experience and intercourse, and so, also, must training 
complement instruction. It must call into exercise judg- 
ment and will. 

Herbart has many followers, especially in Germany 
and the United States. There are two schools of Her- 
schoois of bartians in Germany, — the Stoy school, close 
Herbartians. interpreters, and the Ziller school, free inter- 
preters of Herbartian propositions. His followers of 
both continents have given rich and varied development 
to his fundamental ideas. Whatever objections may be 
advanced on psychological and philosophical grounds to 
the theories of apperception and correlation, it is still 
true that it would be very difficult to find two other 
theories equally fruitful in pedagogical activity and results 
of a high order. 

In 1839 Rosmini-Serbati, a brainy, learned, and 
pious Italian priest, began a work, never completed, on 
Rosmini- Method in Education. It presents a theory 

serbati. closcly resembling the natural development 

theory of Froebel, and as closely resembling the apper- 
ception theory of Herbart with its concomitant ideas of 



THE GREAT EDUCATORS 301 

interest and moral development. He fails of a place in 
historical importance by the side of Froebel and Herbart 
only because, for a number of reasons, his work has not 
entered as an equally effective factor into the develop- 
ment of present educational theory and practice. 



XXVI 

GROWTH OF PUBLIC ELEMENTARY 
EDUCATION 

It was characteristic of tlie social systems of the olden 
time to sacrifice the individual to the organization. The 
more ignorant and helpless the man was, the more com- 
pletely he was suppressed and the more ruthlessly his 
claims to a man's right were trampled upon. The tend- 
ency in the advanced civilizations of to-day is to sacrifice 
the organization for the individual, to use the machinery 
of government to lift up the man, increase his oppor- 
tunities, and otherwise promote his interests. In noth- 
ing else has this tendency been so clearly manifest as in 
the general effort to put a good education within the 
reach of all, nearly or quite at the public expense. In 
nothing else did the civilization of the nineteenth century 
prove itself more beneficent, and the beneficence has 
already been justified in its results. The increased 
interest and participation of the masses of the people in 
the general life of the world, their increased productive- 
ness, dignity, and comfort not only warrant what is now 
done, but also constitute a sufficient and urgent claim 
for broader and more generous effort in the future. 

The initiative taken by Prussia early in the century 
was rapidly followed by nearly all the other German 
states. The compulsory laws adopted by one state after 
another and the efforts made to increase the extent and 

302 



GROWTH OF PUBLIC ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 303 

improve the character of school-work have been remark- 
ably successful. Almost no other lands can show similar 
results. In most of the German states illit- 

Qermany 

eracy has been reduced to a fraction of one and Kindred 
per cent,, and in some states the fraction is 
exceedingly small. As early as 1877, out of six thousand 
recruits furnished the army by Wiirtemberg only one 
was unable to read and write. 

The elementary schools are called Volksschulen, — the 
people's schools. They are open about forty-two weeks 
in the year. Attendance is compulsory from six to 
thirteen or fourteen. The most serious defect of these 
schools is that they are not articulated vdth the second- 
ary and higher schools. Pupils who desire to prepare 
for professional life must leave the elementary schools 
at eight or nine and enter some secondary school. 
There are, however, continuation schools for pupils who 
wish to review their studies and continue them. In the 
country these schools are open in the evening and on 
Sunday. In the cities they form a higher citizen's 
school, and French, English, and sometimes Latin, are 
added to the course. The elementary schools are now 
nearly or quite free. 

In their main features the schools of Switzerland, 
Holland, Denmark, Sweden, and Norway closely resem- 
ble those of Germany. In Norway the authorities fur- 
nish text-books, and even clothing in case of need, in 
order to insure attendance at school. In 1881 the per- 
centage of illiterates among army recruits in Denmark 
was .36, and in Sweden .39. 

In Austria the public schools are left almost entirely 



304 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

to the support of local authorities. Though the Austri- 
ans have done well, they have not kept pace with their 
neighbors in Switzerland and Germany. 

Prior to 1833, in spite of all efforts at educational re- 
organization consequent upon the Revolution, element- 
ary instruction in France was left practically 

France. 

to the religious orders and to private enter- 
prise. At the beginning of the Revolution the Christian 
Brothers had come to be a thousand in number, though 
not all were engaged in elementary teaching. The Order 
survived the Revolution. Considerable elementary in- 
struction was given, too, by the sisters in convents. 
Still, the inadequacy of all the efforts of church or- 
ganizations may be inferred from such statistics as are 
accessible. In 1790, in the diocese of Rouen, by no 
means one of the most illiterate in France, fifty-three 
per cent, of the men who were married and seventy- 
three per cent, of the women could not sign their names 
to the marriage contract. As late as 1873, according to 
government reports, more than thirty per cent, of the 
whole French population was entirely illiterate. 

In 1833, when Guizot was minister of public instruc- 
tion, the state began to participate seriously in the ex- 
tension and control of elementary education. The law 
decreed that there should be a school in every commune, 
or in a group of two or three in case of sparse population. 
The state reserved the right to appoint the teachers and 
to fix salaries. Poor children were to be excused from 
paying tuition fees. The law accomplished great im- 
provement, and was revised in 1850. The war with the 
Germans in 1870-71, with its crushing and humiliating 



GROWTH OF PUBLIC ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 305 

defeats, aroused the French to energetic interest in edu- 
cation. Great and rapid advances began immediately. 
In 1882 education was made free and compulsory for 
both sexes between the ages of six and thirteen. No 
other country in the world now has such a thorough 
and comprehensive organization of schools. In 1895 
ninety-one per cent, of all the children of school age 
attended school regularly. 

Of all the Protestant countries of Europe, England 
was the slowest to develop a live interest in popular edu- 
cation. The predominance of the aristocratic element 
in its social system largely accounts for this. For many 
years the Sunday-schools and the monitorial schools of 
the National Society and the British and Foreign School 
Society had an almost complete monopoly of Great Britain 
elementary instruction. A change began in and Ireland. 
1832, when Parliament appropriated twenty thousand 
pounds for elementary'' education. In 1839 the appro- 
priation was increased to thirty thousand pounds, and a 
special educational committee was established. In this 
year, too, inspectors were appointed to exercise govern- 
ment supervision of the schools. In 1846 was adopted 
the method of employing apprentice teachers, suggested 
by the monitorial system, and training schools were es- 
tablished. Statistics of the previous year had shown 
that only one person in six could read, and one in fifty 
cipher as far as the rule of three. 

In 1870 Parliament enacted a law which really nation- 
alized elementary education. It did not take away 
schools from the control and support of churches and 
religious societies, but imposed certain conditions that 

20 



306 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

must be complied with by schools so controlled to entitle 
them to receive parliamentary grants of money. It pro- 
vided also for the erection of schools for all children of 
school age not attending schools already established, 
these schools to be maintained in part by local taxes 
and in part by state grants, to be unsectarian, and to be 
under the direct control of locally elected school boards. 
These schools are known as board schools, to distinguish 
them from the distinctive church schools, which are 
known as voluntary schools because they are so largely 
supported by vested funds and voluntary contributions. 
The law also required the local authorities to compel 
the attendance of all children of school age, from five to 
fourteen. Few, if any, of the schools were then made 
entirely free. 

The school law of 1891 sought to make elementary 
education as nearly free as possible. It decreed a gov- 
ernment grant of ten shillings for every child of school 
age in average attendance. In many cases this supple- 
ment of local support is sufficient to make tuition free. 
The compulsory law is also enforced with strictness. 
In 1896 the average attendance was eighty-five per cent, 
of the total enrollment. In England and Wales about 
two-thirds of the children attend voluntary schools and 
receive special religious instruction. The remaining 
third attend board schools. 

In Scotland the nationalization of the schools does 
not seem to be so complete as in England, but educa- 
tional interest among the people is strong. The schools 
of Ireland were nationalized in 1831 on the basis of 
common secular instruction and separate instruction in 



GROWTH OF PUBLIC ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 307 

religion. The grants have never been sufficient to make 
the schools free, and the attendance is poor. In 1881 
forty-one per cent, of the people were unable to read 
and write. 

Shortly after the organization of the present Italian 
state, the government turned its serious attention to the 
problem of educating the masses of the people. They 
had, in this respect, been most wofully neg- 
lected. In 1861 about eighty per cent, of European 
the people could not read. The efforts of the countries. 
government to extend popular education were so far suc- 
cessful that in 1879 fifty-two per cent, of the men who 
were married could sign the marriage contract and 
thirty per cent, of the women. In 1877 a law was 
passed making elementary education free and, as far as 
possible, compulsory. The modification of the compul- 
sory clause m the law was due to conditions existing in 
certain localities. 

Spain has had a compulsory law since 1857, but it is 
inoperative. At the present time nearly seventy per 
cent, of the people are illiterate. Of all the Christian 
countries of the world Russia stands lowest education- 
ally. Though there has been of late awakened interest 
in popular education, not more than two per cent, of 
the people attend school. Hundreds of villages, and 
even towns of considerable size, have no schools at all. 

In America the promises made to the future by the 
early interest in popular education displayed by the 
colonies have been abundantly fulfilled. In no other 
land is there expended so much money for public in- 
struction, and in no other land is there manifested such 



308 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

a universal lively interest in education. The example 
set by the general government in providing permanent 
„ ^ , school funds for the new States to be cut out 

School Funds 

in the of the national territory was promptly fol- 

lowed by the older States for themselves. 
Three States only, Rhode Island, Vermont, and Penn- 
sylvania, have no funds of this kind. They supply the 
deficiency by making liberal annual appropriations. That 
of Pennsylvania now is five and a half millions. 

Connecticut anticipated the action of the national gov- 
ernment. As early as 1733 this State set apart, while 
still a colony, the public lands in its northwestern por- 
tion for a school fund. In 1795 it added to the fund 
one million dollars acquired by the sale of the Western 
Reserve in Ohio. New York, in 1786, set apart two lots 
in each township of unoccupied lands for the same pur- 
pose, and in 1801 added to this the proceeds of half a 
million acres of unoccupied lands. Tennessee made 
grants of land for both elementary schools and higher 
education in 1806, and Virginia established a "Literary 
Fund" in 1810. South Carolina followed her example 
in 1811. 

Some of the States partly based their funds on taxes 
collected from banks or on the profits of State banks. 

The national government has also further increased 
its contributions to popular education. In 1836 a sur- 
plus amounting to about thirty millions of dollars was 
distributed among the States. Most of the States added 
all or part of their share of this money to their school 
funds. A law, in 1848, added the thirty-sixth section 
to the sixteenth of every township of government land 



GROWTH OF PUBLIC ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 309 

to be set aside for school purposes. Special grants of 
swamp and salt lands have been made to different 
States, and a percentage of the money accruing from the 
sale of public lands has been turned over to the States 
in M^hose borders these lands were located. 

The liberality of the national and State governments 
was fathered by patriotic leaders of thought, the archi- 
tects of our national life ; but the growth of elementary 
education was not as vigorous as desired. The response 
of the people to these efforts was not commensurate 
with the enthusiasm of their promoters. Schools made 
free of tuition by means of public support were regarded 
as pauper schools. Some of the State funds, as was the 
case with the "Literary Fund" of Virginia, were spe- 
cifically established for the benefit of the poor. The 
very people for whom free schools were supported and 
for whom fees were remitted in other scHools were 
unwilling to take advantage of this liberality. They 
were too proud to subject themselves to the imputation 
of poverty involved in having their children schooled 
under such conditions. The free schools, as ^^^ 

a consequence, did not assume their proper organization. 
dignity and effectiveness until elementary instruction 
was taken under State supervision and was made free 
for all. 

In this New York led the way. In 1795 the schools 
of the State were placed under the control of local trus- 
tees and commissioners, who were required to report to 
the secretary of state. At first the act applied to towns 
and cities only, but was extended to country schools as 
well in 1812, and the office of State Superintendent of 



310 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Common Schools was created. The fees were yet not 
altogether remitted, and the State superintendency was 
afterwards abolished, to be finally restored in 1854. 
Soon after, the schools were made entirely free. With 
varied experiences, the other States followed the exam- 
ple of New York. The permanent establishment of State 
free schools dates back in Pennsylvania to 1834, in Michi- 
gan to 1836, in Massachusetts, Ohio, and Kentucky to 
1837, in Connecticut and Missouri to 1839, and in Iowa 
to 1841. In the South the organization of free public 
instruction was retarded by the peculiar social conditions 
until after the Civil War. Free public instruction is now 
universal in the United States, and in many of the States 
attendance is compulsory. 

In 1897-98 the United States expended upon its pub- 
lic schools nearly two hundred million dollars, two dol- 
lars and sixty-seven cents per capita of population. This 
is more than twice as much per capita as is invested in 
education annually by any other country in the world. 
The public school enrolment in that year was 20.68 per 
cent, of the whole population, a percentage unequaled 
anywhere else. There is a world of encouragement in 
these figures. The large attendance and the fact that 
more than sixty-seven per cent, of the vast sum ex- 
pended was derived from local taxation, indicate that 
the schools take their life from the people themselves. 
Though in many respects they reveal serious defects, 
even when compared with the schools of other progres- 
sive countries, they yet are characterized by an unrivaled 
vigor and breadth of spirit that promises great things for 
the future. 



GROWTH OF PUBLIC ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 311 

When measured by the percentage of illiteracy, the 
United States does not rank as high, educationally, as 
the Scandinavian countries, Germany, or Switzerland. 
The mixed character of the population is mainly re- 
sponsible for this. Nearly one-half the illit- nuteracyinthe 
erates of the country are colored. Among united states. 
the white population the larger number of illiterates is 
found among the immigrants from countries intellectually 
low. Amongst the native white population, Massachu- 
setts has the lowest percentage of illiteracy. In the 
census report of 1890 it was only .8 per cent. In New 
Hampshire it was 1.5; in California, 1.7; in South 
Dakota, 1.2 ; and in Kansas, two per cent. 

The new State systems of public schools in the United 
States did not take form without strenuous efforts made 
by able, generous, and patriotic men. The most influ- 
ential of these was Horace Mann. Education, like 
religion, wins devotees who consecrate lives of heroic 
sacrifice to its service. Among men so won, Mann ranks 
as one of the best and noblest. 

He was born in 1796, in Franklin, a little town in a very 
poor district in Massachusetts. His parents were poor, 
and he lost his father at the age of thirteen. Early Life of 
Early in life he broke down his health with Horace Mann. 
hard manual labor. In his boyhood he got a few weeks 
of schooling in the midst of winter, never more than 
ten weeks in any one year. When twenty years old he 
was inspired to enter college. Six months after he 
commenced the study of Latin and Greek he was ad- 
mitted to the sophomore class in Brown University. 
Though he was obliged to teach in the winter to help 



312 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

pay his way, he graduated at the head of his class. Out 
of his own struggles and hard experiences arose the 
passionate eagerness with which he afterwards strove to 
make possible a good education for all the boys and girls 
of his native State. 

After teaching Latin and Greek for some time at 
Brown, he was admitted to the bar. He was eminently 
successful as a lawyer, and was elected to the State 
legislature in 1827. In 1837 an effort was made by the 
legislature to reorganize and revivify the public schools, 
and the State Board of Education was established. 
Mann was then president of the senate. The executive 
office of the board, the secretaryship, was offered him. 
He at once resigned his presidency and turned his back 
upon the brilliant prospects of his profession to accept 
the office. He filled it twelve years. 

There is a fascinating interest in the story of Mann's 

secretaryship. How he endured the labor nobody can 

tell. There seems to be the power of vitality 

His Activity. . , „ ^ 1 u J 1, 

in lofty purpose. For years he had been 
suffering in health and threatened with consumption, yet 
fifteen hours a day was the usual measure of the secre- 
tary's work. He had profound faith in the public school. 
He regarded it as the greatest institution ever devised by 
man. He believed that the capacity of children for 
growth in intelligence, purity, truthfulness, useful activity, 
and self-direction constitutes an undeniable claim to a 
generous education, and that the property of the State 
is pledged to provide it. 

He went from one end of the State to the other, into 
large towns and obscure villages, seeking to call together 



GROWTH OF PUBLIC ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 313 

the people and waken in them an interest in their schools. 
He appealed to them with the power of his high-strained, 
impassioned eloquence. Sometimes after sweeping a 
room and building a fire himself in severe winter 
weather, he could get but a handful of people to listen 
to him. But nothing daunted him. He found people 
indifferent and inert, but he left them ambitious and en- 
thusiastic. To supplement these efforts and increase the 
scope of his influence he founded and published the 
Common School Journal. 

He wrote a series of annual reports that have become 
classics in American pedagogical literature. He covered 
in them the whole ground of public education. He dis- 
cussed its beneficent results, school archi- Annual 
tecture, school organization and supervision, Reports. 
text-books, and methods of discipline and instruction. 
One of the reports was written after a visit to Europe and 
a study of the schools there. It presented a compara- 
tive study of European and Massachusetts methods, not 
much in favor of the latter. With remarkable clearness 
of insight he foresaw the possibilities of the public school. 
With rare judgment he seized upon all that was in his 
day best in education, and presented it to legislators and 
people, generally in a style clear, forceful, and beautiful. 
Some of the reports, notably the one on foreign schools, 
plunged him into spirited controversies with the Boston 
schoolmasters. All the reports attracted wide attention 
and made a deep impression. The New York legislature 
printed eighteen thousand copies of one for free distribu- 
tion. The British Parliament reprinted another, and the 
German government distributed translations of several. 



314 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Horace Mann, too, was the father of the normal 
schools in the United States. Influenced by him, Ed- 
mund Dwight, of Boston, offered ten thousand dollars 
to erect one, provided the State would furnish an equal 
sum. As a result, the first normal school 

Relation to 

Normal iu the United States was opened at Lexing- 

schoois. ^^^^ j^jy g^ 1839^ and another at Barre in 

September. To aid in furnishing one of the schools 
Mann sold his library, and he mortgaged his property to 
complete two of the buildings. Years afterwards, when 
his pecuniary sacrifices for the schools became known, 
the legislature unanimously voted him a large sum of 
money to reimburse him. 

After serving four years in the United States Congress 
as the successor of John Qunicy Adams, Mann accepted 
the presidency of Antioch College in Ohio. He died in 
1859. The last words upon his lips were "Man, God, 
duty." 

As determined by the ends sought, there must be 
two general kinds of elementary education : elementary 
training preparatory to higher education, and elementary 
training designed primarily to meet the practical demands 
of those unable to continue their studies through the 
higher courses. It is the latter that is generally spoken of 
as elementary education in works on pedagogy. Under 
certain conditions the two may and do coincide. 

The public elementary school of to-day, wherever es- 
tablished, occupies the place relatively of the old parish 
school. It is a vast improvement upon the latter both 
as an agency for the increase of knowledge and as an aid 
to the development of faculty. In spite of the fact that 



GROWTH OF PUBLIC ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 815 

Comenius had mapped out an elementary course nearly 
like that common at the present time, most schools 
adhered to the limited course of the previous 

'■ Improvements 

century until well into the nineteenth. The in courses of 
catechism was committed to memory, pupils ^^'^Ay. 

were taught to read and write, and they learned a 
little arithmetic. In Protestant schools the Bible was 
the common reading book. There was no extensive 
course in reading, no study of history, geography, or 
natural science. Arithmetic very generally was taught 
orally and the exercises were memorized. What a mar- 
vellous change has taken place ! In public elementary 
schools, almost universally, and in many parochial schools 
as well, the course embraces at least reading, writing, 
dravnng, modelling, arithmetic, geography, history, civil 
government, and grammar. To these studies are gen- 
erally added natural science, physiology and hygiene, 
and gymnastics. The term reading now covers a con- 
siderable course in literature. In France, gymnastics 
and military drill form a regular part of the training. 

In 1868 Finland made wood-work compulsory in the 
schools. Most likely at the suggestion of Finland, Swe- 
den and Denmark also soon took up manual training. 
It is rapidly finding its way into the schools of America. 
But France has done more for it than any other country. 
In the French system a regular course in manual train- 
ing begins with the first year at school, and ends with 
wood- and iron-work the last year. 

In all countries except France and the United States 
the religious instruction remains in the schools and forms 
a prominent part of the work. In the United States 



316 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

the old type of religious instruction is impossible in the 
public schools because of denominational differences. In 
France it was taken out of the schools to keep them from 
church control. The schools are closed on Thursdays, 
however, to give the children opportunity to receive 
religious instruction in churches. 

The changes in the courses of study and other exer- 
cises are not greater nor more radical than the changes 
Improvements iu mcthods. Tlicsc chaugcs are largely due 
in Methods. ^^ ^^^ influence of Pestalozzi, Froebel, and 
Herbart, and in some measure also to the reflex influ- 
ence of the changes in the character of the work in the 
universities. 

Nothing better illustrates the revolution in methods 
than the changes that have taken place in teaching read- 
ing. Formerly pupils were taken through a monotonous 
course of alphabet teaching and spelling, and after a year 
or two of this were entered in a race for superiority in 
accuracy and rapidity of word recognition and pronun- 
ciation. The range of performance was very limited, 
and the exercises were vastly improved when they were 
converted into very mechanical elocutionary efl'orts. A 
number of interesting and effective modifications of word 
and phonic methods and combinations of them have 
succeeded this, and reading has become primarily a 
study of literature adapted to the intelligence and taste of 
the pupils. It is no longer a mere matter of glib pro- 
nunciation, but a matter as well of question and answer, 
and illustration with picture, story, and parallel fact or 
occurrence. It is a common thing to require oral or 
written reviews of lessons, sketches of the authors, and 



GROWTH OF PUBLIC ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 317 

even original illustrative drawings. In addition to this, 
systematic reading of suitable authors, even in the lower 
grades, is becoming common. The reading books gen- 
erally contain well-chosen literary productions of a high 
grade, and are masterpieces of book-making, beautifully 
and helpfully illustrated, well-nigh as beautiful and inter- 
esting to look at as to read. 

Numbers are now studied concretely in primary grades, 
and much of the number work is interestingly correlated 
with other study. Plant, animal, and insect life is studied 
by direct observation in all progressive schools, and col- 
lections of compositions and of plain and colored draw- 
ings of specimens studied ornament many school-rooms. 
Field-work in geography is gaining a foothold in America, 
as it long ago did in Switzerland and Germany. In all 
studies the same tendencies are manifest. Mechanical 
memorizing is yielding to rational efforts to develop 
faculty and intellectual appetite as well as real and in- 
teresting knowledge, and the whir of the whip and the 
cry of the culprit are seldom heard. 

In America the beginning of this decided change from 
the old order of things to the spirit and methods of what 
has been termed the " New Education," was made in the 
schools of Quincy, Massachusetts, between 1875 and 
1880, while Colonel Francis Parker was su- coionei 

perintendent. He came to the work there Parker. 

after an extended experience as teacher and superin- 
tendent in his native State, New Hampshire, and in the 
West, a school experience broken by distinguished ser- 
vice in the Union army during the Civil War. Back of 
him was a long line of scholarly and teaching ancestry, 



318 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

from whom he mherited originality and force. He was 
still further equipped for the work by two years of 
special study of philosophy and pedagogy at the Univer- 
sity of Berlin. The originality and success of his work 
at Qumcy attracted the attention of educators and teachers 
all over the country. Many visited Quincy and studied 
the work done there. It thus exerted wide influence. 
Colonel Parker is a stalwart in mind and body, and, 
with the valiant enthusiasm and vigor of a knight of the 
olden time, he championed his pedagogical ideas before 
teachers' assemblies and effected great changes in theory 
and practice. He has delivered series of lectures on 
pedagogy, and his Talks on Pedagogy is a valuable con- 
tribution to our professional literature. He was for 
many years the efficient head of the Cook County Nor- 
mal School, Illinois. 

What La Salle did for the Christian Brothers and 
Francke for his teachers has now become a common 
Training of thing. Whcrcvcr there is a widespread in- 
Teachers. tercst in elementary instruction there is some 
provision made for the professional training of teachers. 
The teachers' seminaries which existed in Germany at 
the end of the eighteenth century have been so mul- 
tiplied that there is no teacher, except an old and ap- 
proved one, without professional training. The brightest 
pupils in the schools, if they care to become teachers, 
are permitted to take a normal course after graduating 
and taking three years of further academic training. The 
normal studies consume three years more. 

In France, Guizot found forty-seven primary normal 
schools in 1833. He adopted these as state institutions. 



GROWTH OF PUBLIC ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 319 

Now there are in France one female and one male nor- 
mal school for nearly every department in the country, 
one hundred and seventy-two schools in all. 

The first normal school in Great Britain was estab- 
lished in Glasgow, by David Stow, in 1827. There is now 
a large number of training colleges for teachers, and 
there are professorships of pedagogy in universities both 
in England and Scotland. England still has, however, a 
number of apprentice teachers. 

In professional training, Italy has made the most as- 
tonishing progress of all, having now proportionally 
more normal schools than any other country in the 
world. 

For a number of reasons, professional training is not 
yet as generally provided for in the United States as it 
should be ; but the number of public and private nor- 
mal schools is increasing very rapidly, and no less 
rapidly is the attendance also increasing. The State of 
Pennsylvania has thirteen such schools, the largest 
number, and has also the largest attendance. New 
York has eleven, and Massachusetts six. Some of the 
States have only one. But professional training is not 
limited to the normal schools. The State of New York, 
especially, makes appropriations for approved academies 
and colleges that maintain normal classes, and normal 
classes are found in many such institutions in other 
States. 

Nearly all the large cities have training schools for 
their young people who intend to teach. High-grade 
teachers' colleges are springing up, and pedagogical de- 
partments are now to be found in a number of the 



320 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

universities. To supply the lack of professional training 
and keep alive the corps and professional spirit, teachers' 
institutes have become recognized pedagogical institu- 
tions in both the United States and Canada. They reach 
all the public school teachers, and have accomplished a 
vast amount of good. 

The first training of teachers consisted of special 
reviews of the courses of study which the student was 
expected to teach, study of some accepted method or 
methods of teaching, and, sometimes, of practice — ^teach- 
ing under supervision. The latter was one of the fea- 
tures in the early Jesuit training of teachers. The first 
teachers' seminaries and normal schools all offered 
academic courses of study with instruction in methods 
of teaching and school management. The 

Professional • • ii 

Training academic studies still generally remam m the 

Courses. normal schools, but the character of the pro- 

fessional work has been transformed. The object now 
is not to make mechanics skilled in certain methods of 
doing prescribed work, but masters of a difficult and 
exalted art, — the art of developing boys and girls into 
men and women of a high type. The study of methods 
is now subordinated to analysis of studies and of mental 
functions, and inquiry into principles. Prominent in the 
courses of study now are psychology, ethics, history of 
education, scientific pedagogy, including methods of 
teaching and school management, and systematic training 
in practical child study. In America the State normal 
schools always have practice or model schools attached 
to them. 

In 1850 Brown University established a professorship 



GROWTH OF PUBLIC ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 321 

of pedagogy. One after another of the larger colleges 
and universities have since done the same. In some of 
these university schools of pedagogy the work is of a 
high order and very thorough and comprehensive. 
Naturally the graduates seek principalships and superin- 
tendencies, yet many teach in lower-grade schools. In 
every way the university work in pedagogy has promoted 
the interests and standing of the profession. 

Froebel's noble contribution to the means of human 
development did not remain mert. In spite of its un- 
kindly reception in the land of its origin, the ^^^ 
Kindergarten is winning its way even there. Kindergartens. 
In other countries it is rapidly growing in favor, and is 
gaining recognition as a regular part of the machinery of 
popular education. In Switzerland, the first country to 
adopt it, it is nearly everywhere a part of the public 
school system. In the United States the first Kinder- 
garten was opened by Mrs. Carl Schurz, about 1855, 
among the Germans in Watertown, Wisconsin. Mrs. 
Schurz had attended Froebel's lectures in Hamburg. 
Through Mrs. Schurz Miss Elizabeth Palmer Peabody 
became interested in the work. Miss Peabody became 
the great American apostle of the Kindergarten, doing 
for it in America what Baroness Marenholtz-Biilow did 
for it in Europe. St. Louis was the first city to adopt 
it. Philadelphia, Boston, and Milwaukee have also in- 
corporated it into the public school system. In 1870 
there were only five Kindergartens in the country. In 
1891-92 there were already one thousand and one. 
Of these, two hundred and seventy-seven were public. 

France has been most generous of all in the adoption 

21 



322 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

of it. Infant schools (ecoles infantine), as they are cahed 
there, take children from four to seven years of age and 
prepare them for the primary schools. These infant 
schools are supported entirely by the state. A modifica- 
tion of this school, the mother school, is also supported 
by the state in communes of two thousand or more in- 
habitants. The mother school is a sort of combination 
of nursery and Kindergarten. It takes children from 
two to six years of age, and cares for them from early 
morning until evening. This makes it possible to give 
trained care to the children of the poor and at the same 
time enable the mothers to go out to service. 



1 



XXVII 
SECONDARY AND HIGHER EDUCATION 

In Europe secondary education is so directly the out- 
growth of the classical schools of the Renaissance that 
the kinship is evident in all the courses of study. None 
of the secondary schools, however, have remained un- 
modified by the development of mathematics and the 
natural sciences. 

In Germany, where the conflict between realism and 
humanism has been of longest duration and most vigor- 
ous, there are two distinct types of secondary schools, 
the gymnasium and the real school (Real- 
schule). In the gymnasium the classical secondary 
languages are supreme ; while in the real 
school the sciences and modern languages receive more 
attention at the expense of the classic tongues. The 
course in both is nine years. In the gymnasium Latin 
is studied throughout the course and Greek six years. 
In the real school Greek is not studied at all and Latin 
has assigned to it fewer periods than in the gymnasium. 

The gymnasial course commonly embraces religion, 
German, Latin, Greek, French, English, history, geography, 
mathematics, natural history, physics, writing, and draw- 
ing. 

The real schools are growmg in favor, but their grad- 
uates are still debarred from certain courses in the uni- 
versities, generally from theology and law. For students 

323 



324 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

who prefer to take technical courses for callings that 
do not require university training there are secondary 
schools with the upper classes omitted. These are the 
progymnasia and the real schools of the second order. 

The secondary schools receive most of their support 
from state and municipal governments, but they are not 
entirely free. Their most unfortunate feature is that 
they are based upon and maintain class distinctions. 
They are not articulated with the popular elementary 
schools. Parents able and willing to give their boys the 
advantages of a superior education cannot, if they wish, 
keep them in the -elementary schools after they are eight 
or nine years of age. 

The teachers of the secondary schools are superior 
men. They are required to spend three years in some 
university studying philosophy, literature, and the 
branches they expect to teach, pass an examination, teach 
a trial year, and devote three years more to pedagogical 
training in a seminary connected wdth a university or 
gymnasium. 

In the other Teutonic countries of Europe secondary 

education is very much as it is in Germany, In Great 

Britain and the Latin countries it is more 

European exclusively of the classic type. 

Secondary jj^ Great Britain secondary schools are 

Schools. 

mostly endowed, and are not free. The 
most famous of them are the great boarding-schools of 
England, like Rugby, Eton, and Winchester. The best 
known of them to Americans is Rugby, because of the 
magnificent work done there by Dr. Thomas Arnold. 
These schools have been very conservative, having but 



SECONDARY AND HIGHER EDUCATION 325 

recently modified their strictly classical courses. The 
system of fagging, in which lower class pupils are 
obliged to perform menial services for those in higher 
classes, or forms, as they are called in England, still 
prevails. 

In France secondary education is given in the col- 
leges and lyceums. These institutions are much alike, 
except that the course in a lyceum is fuller than in a 
coUege. They belong to the state system of schools. 
In the upper classes there is a division of studies allowed 
on the basis of humanism and realism. The element- 
ary school is also followed by a higher course cor- 
responding somewhat to the continuation, or middle, 
school of the German cities. It is called the higher pri- 
mary school (ecole primaire superieure). This school 
has not yet become very popular. The attendance in 
1897-98 in all France was only about thirty thousand 
of both sexes. There are higher normal schools with a 
three-year course for the training of teachers for the 
secondary schools, of principals for elementary schools, 
and of superintendents. 

In Europe higher education still belongs mainly to the 
universities, though there are higher schools, as schools 
of science and of medicine, not connected 

European 

with regular university organizations. Paral- Higher 

lei in importance with the extension of ele- Education. 
mentary education has been the development of the 
universities. Though many of them are hoary Avith age, 
they have, to an astonishing degree, broken away from 
the trammels of a hurtful conservatism, remaining true 
to their noblest traditions. To theii* own advantage and 



326 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

the benefit of society at large, the student bodies have 
lost many of their ancient privileges and have laid aside 
some of their barbarous customs. The faculties, too, 
have been modified. To meet the demands of modern 
life, the old faculties, especially that of philosophy, have 
been divided and subdivided, and new faculties have 
been created. The greatest changes of all have been in 
the character of the work done. These changes have 
made prophetic, by more than anticipated fulfilment, the 
work of Francis Bacon and the revolutionary declaration 
of Gundling at Halle. The method of the universities 
now is the laboratory method, even in departments where 
but a few years ago it seemed impossible of application. 
In every department of knowledge there is the most 
enthusiastic and searching investigation, the most minute 
and painstaking determining of facts, and generalization 
at once bold and cautious. It has accomplished miracles, 
and the universities have more than ever before become 
identified with the active, practical life of the world. 
Their influence is deeply felt in every phase of school- 
work, and in almost every form of human activity out- 
side of the school. 

In the matter of free investigation the German uni- 
versities have taken the lead. Among progressive coun- 
tries, those of Great Britain have been most conservative. 
Their work is still markedly academic in character. The 
old French universities were abolished by the Revolution. 
In the reorganization which followed, when the term 
" university" was applied to the whole educational estab- 
lishment, the higher faculties were organized as part of 
the establishment, but were separately located in differ- 



SECONDARY AND HIGHER EDUCATION 327 

ent cities. The faculties were thus swallowed up in the 
state organization and were deprived of the privilege 
of receiving private gifts and endowments. France 
had no real universities. By the law of 1896 this was 
changed. It authorized the organization of universities 
with individual character and importance. It restored 
the privilege of gift and endowment, though it still keeps 
the universities under state control. A number now have 
all the faculties united in one organization, and have 
assumed new and vigorous life. In every country in 
Europe, with few exceptions, universities are increasing, 
sometimes in numbers, always in importance and use- 
fulness. 

Nothing better attests the healthfulness and vigor of 
educational interest in the United States than the chaotic 
state of secondary and higher education and j^ ^^^ 

the fmancial support they command. The united states. 
schools of these grades are very numerous, and appar- 
ently defy accurate classification. They owe their exist- 
ence to the practical needs and ambitions of the people, 
and from these they derive their character rather than 
from any traditional norm. They are, therefore, as 
varied as are the sections of country in which they exist, 
and it seems well-nigh impossible to find any educational 
need which they do not supply. Such enormous sums 
of money are invested in them as no other country in 
the world has ever devoted to similar service. 

Although there was some public provision made for 
secondary education as early as the middle of the seven- 
teenth century, especially in Massachusetts, yet up to 
1850 there were probably not over a dozen secondary 



328 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

schools in the United States publicly maintained. The 
founding of such institutions was left, in the interval, to 
The Secondary chuFch Organizations and private individuals. 
Schools. These schools were generally called acade- 

mies. The public secondary schools became known as 
high schools. About the middle of the nineteenth century 
the high schools began to multiply with great rapidity. 
By 1880 the number had increased to nearly five hun- 
dred. Between 1890 and 1896 the number of pupils in 
high schools increased eighty-seven per cent. In 1897-98 
there were reported five thousand three hundred and 
fifteen high schools, with an enrollment of four hundred 
and forty-nine thousand six hundred pupils. With the 
exception of the high-grade college preparatory schools, 
the academies have relatively declined both in numbers 
and attendance. In some sections they have entirely 
disappeared. 

The first academies and high schools as far as they 
were strictly secondary, that is, preparatory to higher 
institutions of learning, were classical schools. The 
first high school of the "real" type was the English 
High School of Boston, founded in 1821. Now 
nearly all secondary schools provide at least two types 
of courses, classical and scientific. What has diversified 
the courses of study to the prevailing extent is the fact 
that there is no fixed standard of higher education and 
that most secondary schools have performed a double 
office. They have been both preparatory and supple- 
mental, or continuation, schools. In fact, many of the 
high schools have not advanced beyond the latter char- 
acter. In both high schools and academies many people 



SECONDARY AND HIGHER EDUCATION 329 

complete their education. A number of the giants in 
American history received no culture beyond that af- 
forded them by the old academies. 

The work of higher education in the United States is 
done by colleges, universities, and special professional 
schools. The nineteenth century began with twenty-four 
colleges and universities of college rank in 

° ° Higher 

existence, and ended with over four hundred Education in 
colleges and universities. The early colleges ^°^*^^ ®''**®^- 
were very strictly and narrowly classical. They were 
mainly founded by religious bodies to prepare scholars 
for the ministry, and a number had theological semi- 
naries attached to them. The natural sciences received 
almost no attention at all. Wilson, the ornithologist, who 
visited Princeton College early in the century, claimed 
that the professor of science there did not know the 
dijfference between a sparrow and a hawk. There was 
a little illustrative work done in physics. The first 
college chair in chemistry was established in 1795, at 
Princeton. 

The expansion of knowledge and activity not only 
caused a rapid increase in the number of higher institu- 
tions of learning, but also demanded modifications of the 
course of study. Harvard commenced an elective sys- 
tem of studies in 1824. The University of the City of 
New York was organized in 1830 with sixteen depart- 
ments, half of which were assigned to science and the 
modem languages. Yale began the Sheffield Scientific 
School in 1846 ; and Harvard, the Lawrence Scientific 
School the year following. About the same time the 
University of Michigan established two courses of study 



330 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

for graduation, a classical and a scientific. Similar 
changes followed rapidly in other institutions and were 
adopted by new ones. Nearly all colleges now have the 
two kinds of courses, and a great many have a number 
of elective groups of studies preparing for graduation, 
besides admitting irregular students to elective studies 
without graduation. 

More than a fourth of the higher institutions have been 
incorporated as universities, but many are universities 
more in the hope and ambition natural to a new country 
than in reality. Such institutions have existed for years 
with a mere handful of students and of a grade inferior 
to that of a good academy. A number of the older 
colleges and universities, however, have developed into 
genuine universities of a high order and new ones have 
been established. They have professional and post- 
graduate courses of study under able professors. Some 
of them, because of the wealth of their endowment and 
the breadth and energy of the American spirit which 
they represent, promise soon to be the foremost institu- 
tions of learning in the world. All the universities, 
though differing from one another in organization and 
entrance conditions, have a distinctly American character 
plainly separating them from the universities of the old 
world. They are a new product of a new civilization. 

In the States founded after the adoption of the na- 
tional constitution there are colleges and universities 
founded and supported by the States. This is the case 
also in some of the older States. Most of these institu- 
tions, however, have been founded by religious bodies 
and individuals. Money has been literally showered 



SECONDARY AND HIGHER EDUCATION 331 

upon the most favored. In nothing else has American 
wealth been more generously displayed. Mr. Rockefeller 
has given over three million dollars to Chicago University ; 
Jonas G. Clark gave two millions to Clark University, 
iMassachusetts ; Paul Tulane, two and a half millions to 
Tulane University, Louisiana ; Johns Hopkins, three and 
a half millions to the Johns Hopkins University, Balti- 
more ; and Leland Stanford, five millions for the uni- 
versity in California named after his son, while his wife 
has since added many millions more in money and other 
property. The annual benefactions to Harvard amount 
to nearly or quite a million dollars, and to a number of 
other universities nearly as much. It is estimated that 
the sum donated for higher education in 1899 amounted 
to more than seventy million dollars. 

One of the best evidences of health in modem social 
life is the extent and high character of the special train- 
ing for callings not included among the traditional learned 
professions. Every civilized country to-day has well- 
equipped schools to educate for architecture. Technical 
agriculture, civil, mining, and electrical engi- Education. 
neering, designing, and military and naval command. 
Such schools are generally termed polytechnic. In Ger- 
many, which leads other European countries in this type 
of education, they are called technical high schools. 

In Great Britain and the United States it is common 
to co-ordinate technical courses of study with other col- 
lege and university courses, thus giving them equal 
dignity. 

The first technical school of this character in the 
United States was the West Point Military Academy, 



332 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

established in 1802. The first civil institution that could 
claim rank with it was the Rensselaer School, in New 
York, established in 1824. It first trained particularly 
for agriculture, but had a course in engineering as early 
as 1835. It soon had many rivals and imitators. 

The national government has given much encourage- 
ment to the schools in agriculture. In 1862 an act was 
passed and approved by President Lincoln offering thirty 
thousand acres of land for every senator and representa- 
tive in its representation in Congress to every State that 
would undertake to establish and maintain an agricultural 
college. All the States in the course of time accepted the 
offer. As was designed in the act, other technical courses 
have been added. The whole area of land appropriated 
was nine million six hundred thousand acres. 



XXVIII 

OTHER CHARACTERISTIC DEVEL- 
OPMENTS 

The efforts to reach and benefit every phase of human 
life with educational agencies are so varied that it is al- 
most impossible to give a clear and consistent account 
of them in a brief narrative. Industrial edu- industrial 
cation, as distinguished from manual training Education. 
with main reference to its culture value and from higher 
technical training, worthily claims some attention. 

There never was such thoughtful earnestness in life as 
now. The products of industry have passed from sim- 
plicity and crudeness to complexity, accuracy, and finish. 
The ignorant, unskilled, and morally weak were never 
so much at a disadvantage. It is, therefore, a wise 
charity that seeks to train youth to meet well the de- 
mands of productive activity. 

In line with the attempts at industrial education made 
by Francke in Germany, by Kinderman in his Bohemian 
parish, and by Pestalozzi in Switzerland, industrial 
schools have sprung up in great numbers in Europe and 
America, and in other countries as well. All over Eu- 
rope there are industrial night schools, and apprentice 
schools for the different trades to take the place of 
the old system of apprenticeship. These schools have 
courses of study combined with the work in the trades. 
In this matter the United States is by no means behind. 

333 



334 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

The most famous schools of the kind in this country are 
the school for Indians and colored youth at Hampton, 
Virginia; Booker Washington's Normal and Industrial 
School for colored youth, at Tuskegee, Alabama, ; and 
the great government schools for Indians, like the one 
at Carlisle, Pennsylvania. A number of the States, 
too, have adopted the industrial school as a means of 
reforming perverted youths. 

The humane spirit deeply ingrained in our present 
civilization has established many schools for the educa- 
tion of those defective either physically or mentally. 
Schools for the deaf and dumb and for the blind are to 
be found in almost every land in Christendom. 

The first systematic effort to instruct deaf mutes was 

made as early as 1550 by a Benedictine monk in Spain, 

Pedro Ponce de Leon. A number of learned 

Schools for the 

Deaf and meii after him took deep interest in the 
^^^' work. The first school for deaf mutes open 

to the public was established in Paris, in 1760, by the 
Abbe de I'Epee. Aided by the work done before, he 
devised a system of signs, which is the basis of the sign 
systems used to-day. 

In 1774 Heinicke founded a school at Leipsic. In his 
school the pupils Avere taught to speak and to read the 
movements of the lips. His method was an outgrowth 
of one devised by John Conrad Amman, a Swiss physi- 
cian, who lived in Amsterdam. 

The pioneer instructor of deaf mutes in the United 
States was Rev. T. H. Gallaudet. Through his influence 
the first school was established, in Hartford, Connecticut. 
He was appointed its first director. The State Legisla- 



OTHER CHARACTERISTIC DEVELOPMENTS 336 

ture appropriated money for it, and the national govern- 
ment contributed twenty-three thousand acres of land. 
This school was founded in 1815, with the title, "The 
Connecticut Asylum for the Education of the Deaf and 
Dumb." 

The nineteenth century began with four such schools. 
Now there are over sixty in this country alone. They 
are mostly State institutions. In Europe, too, they are 
generally maintained by the governments. Usually in- 
dustrial training is combined with the instruction. In 
Washington there is a "National Deaf-Mute College" 
with a regular college curriculum. There are still two 
systems used, one resembling Heinicke's and the other 
De I'Epee's. 

The first school for the blind was founded in Paris, 
in 1791, by Valentine Haiiy. This school became the 
"Royal Institution of France" through the 

■ r. .1 , . /^.i For the Blind. 

sanction and support of the king. Other 
European countries soon established similar institutions. 
The first school of the kind in the United States was the 
Massachusetts Institution for the Blind. It was founded 
in 1832 through the efforts of S. G. Howe, and was also 
managed by him. He was a philanthropic physician. 
He also established a school for feeble-minded. There 
are now more than thirty schools supported by different 
States. As is the case in deaf-mute schools, intellectual 
and industrial training are combined. It is in institutions 
of this sort that teaching best reveals its possibilities as 
a fine art. No more remarkable educational results 
have ever been accomplished than in the culture of 
Laura Bridgman and Helen Keller. In the education of 



336 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

the blind this country excels all others both in the extent 
and the thoroughness of the training. 

Most plainly of all, schools for the feeble-minded evi- 
dence the effort of modern education to give to all men 
and women the highest possible development. Education 
now means patient and enthusiastic devotion to the 
For the Feeble- making of life. Sixteen States have provided 
Minded. schools for feeble-minded children. The 

founder of the system of instruction was also a French- 
man, Edouard Seguin. Much of his work, however, 
was done in the United States. He died in New York, in 
1880. Pupils admitted to the schools are carefully ex- 
amined as to the power of their bodily organs. Accord- 
ing to their needs and capacities each one of their organs 
is then perseveringly trained with appropriate exercises 
to make it as nearly as possible normal in its functions. 
On this training is based the social, moral, and intel- 
lectual culture which they receive. Their education is 
necessarily largely industrial. 

Among the social revolutions of the eventful nineteenth 
century none will stand more to its credit than the 
changed status of womanhood. Though it involves 
what appear to be objectionable and perilous features, 
no other change has proved so immediately satisfactory 
and beneficial. It necessarily constituted a new educa- 
tional demand. Outside of the convents, and generally 
within, prior to 1800, there was seldom more than an 
elementary education vouchsafed to girls. As late as 
1888 only ten per cent, of the pupils in French second- 
ary schools were girls. In the English secondary schools 
at the same time the number did not exceed thirty per 



OTHER CHARACTERISTIC DEVELOPMENTS 337 

cent. In 1889 there was not a woman matriculated in 
a German or Austrian university, though in the latter 
country they were admitted to certain lectures. 

Because of the high valuation it has accorded to the 
individual and because of its devotion to the principle 
of individual Opportunity, the United States has led the 
world in the emancipation and generous education of 
women. The first notable leader in the 
work of increasing woman's educational ad- Education of 
vantages was a Vermont lady, Miss Emma women in 

^° •' ' America. 

Hart, afterwards Mrs. Willard. She opened 
a seminary for young ladies at Middlebury, Vermont, in 
1800. She afterwards founded the famous Troy Female 
Seminary. By means of a published address she influ- 
enced the New York legislature to appropriate money 
for a number of high-grade girls' schools. Her work 
and writing also led to the founding of institutions like 
her own in a number of States. Miss Catherine Beecher, 
of Connecticut, shares with her the credit of giving life 
to the movement that scattered academies for young 
ladies all over the Union. She founded an academy at 
Hartford in 1822, and a similar one afterwards in Cin- 
cinnati. She finally became a leader in an organization 
formed to advance the educational interests of women. 

The first school assuming to itself the dignity of a 
college for women was the Mount Holyoke Female Semi- 
nary. It was founded by Mary Lyon, at South Hadley, 
Massachusetts, in 1836. In 1861 Vassar was founded, 
and furnished the type for the female colleges of the 
highest grade. It was followed in its class by Wellesley, 
Smith, and Bryn Mawr. The last named is liberally 

22 



338 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

endowed and provides and encourages post-graduate 
work. 

The first attempt to conduct a public secondary school 
for girls was made in Boston in 1826. It failed because 
the patronage exceeded the support. It was reorganized 
successfully in 1852. Philadelphia established its Girls' 
High School in 1840, Most high schools are coeduca- 
tional. The number of girls in the high schools at the 
present time largely exceeds that of the boys. 

There are now hundreds of semmaries and colleges 
for women in the United States, but in addition to these 
a large number of colleges and universities have opened 
their doors to men and women alike. The first college 
to win for itself a crown of honor by doing this was 
Oberlin College, Ohio. It was opened as a coeducational 
institution in 1833. 

In the United States, too, there is no profession for 
which a woman may not receive university training. 
Miss Elizabeth Blackwell opened the way for the study 
of medicine. After having been refused admission to 
medical courses in Philadelphia, New York, and Boston, 
she gained permission to study medicine in Geneva Col- 
lege, New York, in 1847. About 1870, ladies began to 
be admitted to law schools. Washington University, St. 
Louis, was the first to grant the privilege. 

England leads Europe in the matter of female educa- 
tion. In 1804 there was opened a school in Prussia 
to educate women as teachers, but still Germany has 
continued to be one of the slowest countries to yield 
superior educational facilities to women. In 1848 
Queen's College was founded in London to educate 



OTHER CHARACTERISTIC DEVELOPMENTS 339 

women for teachers and governesses. It was soon 
followed by Bedford College, a similar institution. After 
that not much progress was made for many 
years. The great impetus to female higher Education of 
education in Great Britain was finally given women in 

•' ° Europe. 

by Miss E. Davies, who published a power- 
ful work on the subject in 1866. The following year 
Cambridge professors commenced to lecture, though 
without official sanction, to women who rented a house 
for the purpose. For this work Girton College, the first 
female college in Europe, was opened in 1872, and 
women were soon granted degrees. One after another 
of the countries of Europe have since followed the ex- 
amples set by the United States and England, and 
opened their universities to women. In 1880, too, 
France made female secondary education a part of her 
public system. 

In 1873 the University of Cambridge, in England, 
inaugurated a movement that has extended the benefits 
of higher learning and intellectual method to many 
thousands who otherwise would be excluded. The 
movement is known as University Extension. It was 
wonderfully successful from the beginning. university 
The object is to reach people unable to take Extension, 
the regular university course. Arrangements are made 
in towns for a series of lectures by a trained university 
lecturer. At a very moderate expense people are ad- 
mitted to the course irrespective of age, sex, or previous 
training. The lecturer gives to each a syllabus of the 
lectures, and a series of questions upon each. Those 
who desire so to do, answer these questions in writing. 



340 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Before each lecture after the first, a period is spent with 
the lecturer in discussing the previous lecture. At the 
end of the series there is an examination. All who pass 
receive a proper certificate. 

A few years after Cambridge began the work, a spe- 
cially organized Extension Society in London took it up. 
Now all the universities in Great Britain are engaged in 
it, and the students are numbered by tens of thousands. 

Individuals connected with Johns Hopkins University 
introduced the movement into America in 1887. Soci- 
eties have been formed for it, the most important of 
them being the American Society of Philadelphia, and 
the University of Chicago has made it a special depart- 
ment. It is rapidly spreading and growing in popularity. 
The New York legislature appropriates money liberally 
for a State system of extension. 

Similar work of a more popular character is done in 
the evening schools of France, in New York, and in 
other States and countries as well. 

Another educational movement equally popular and 
useful was instituted by Dr. J. H. Vincent, a bishop in the 
Methodist Church, and Lewis Miller, a wealthy manu- 
facturer in Ohio. In 1874 they organized a summer 
assembly to convey systematic instruction to 
Chautauqua Sunday-school teachers. The assembly 
Movement. ^icets aiinually in beautiful grounds on 
Chautauqua Lake, in the southwestern part of New 
York. In 1878 there grew out of it the "Chautauqua 
Literary and Scientific Circle." It prescribes a definite 
four years' course of reading, each year's work complete 
in itself. The course is designed to take the place of a 



OTHER CHARACTERISTIC DEVELOPMENTS 341 

college training with those unable to attend college. It 
is pursued by local circles all over the country. Be- 
tween two and three hundred thousand begin the course 
every year. A great many of these complete it and 
receive the diplomas. There has been added a " Col- 
lege of Liberal Arts" with an able faculty. The work 
is done by correspondence. After rigid examinations, 
it grants the usual college degrees. 

The Chautauqua Assembly has many imitators, and 
has helped to give popularity to summer schools of other 
kinds. 

Modern educational ideals and methods have devel- 
oped a wonderful desire to understand the mysteries of 
the unfolding life of the children. The interest in the 
observation of child life has grown directly out of the 
work of Pestalozzi and Froebel. More than thirty years 
ago there were organized efforts to study 
children made by teachers' associations in cmm study 
Germany. Probably the most definite im- Movement. 
pulse to the movement in Germany was given by Prayer, 
professor of physiology at Jena. In 1881 he published 
an account of the development of his own child in the 
first years of its life. 

The first great leader of the movement in the United 
States was Dr. G. Stanley Hall. He is a man to whose 
thorough education some of the best institutions in 
America and Germany have contributed. He was for a 
number of years professor of psychology and pedagogy 
in Johns Hopkins University, and was made president 
of Clark University at the time of its opening, in 1887. 
Through his students, publications, public addresses, and 



342 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

syllabi sent out to teachers he has awakened a wide- 
spread interest in child study and given it intelligent 
direction. 

Associations for the conduct and promotion of child 
study are now very numerous in cities, counties, and 
States. A deep impression has already been made by 
it on the character of school work, and there is as yet 
only a prophecy of the good that will yet be accom- 
plished. 



XXIX 
SCHOOL SUPERVISION 

Modern development of education has made it a great 
and complex social engine, and modern educational 
ideals and theories have made teaching one of the most 
difficult of arts. That the work may be reasonably suc- 
cessful it is necessary that there be thorough professional 
training of the teachers and wise supervision of the 
schools. Progress in the thoroughness and effectiveness 
of supervision has fairly kept pace with progress other- 
wise, though unequally so in different countries. 

The general supervision of the school system of Eng- 
land is entrusted to a committee of the Privy Council. 
The oversight of the committee is confined to elementary 

schools. It is rendered effective in the char- 
in England. 

acter of the work done in the schools by 
means of a system of inspectors. The country is di- 
vided into school districts. The inspectors and assistant 
inspectors of each district are under the direction of a 
senior inspector. All schools receiving state support 
may be visited and examined at any time. The inspectors 
are men of thorough professional training. 

The organization in France is very complete. All the 
schools from the lowest to the highest are 
incorporated into the University. At the 
head of the whole system is the Minister of Public In- 
struction. He is assisted by the Higher Council of Public 

343 



344 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Instruction. This includes three special bodies repre- 
senting the three departments of education, — primary, 
secondary, and higher. 

All of France, that is, the University, speaking educa- 
tionally, is divided into seventeen academies. At the 
head of each academy is a rector, assisted by a council. 
This council has special care of secondary and higher 
education. 

The academies embrace a number of departments. 
The prefect of the department is also at the head of its 
educational organization, assisted by an inspector of the 
academy, a trained school man. There is a departmental 
council of instruction, and this has special care of the 
elementary schools. 

The sub-divisions of the departments, the arrondisse- 
ments, also have an executive school officer and a coun- 
cil. Last of all, every commune has a board in charge 
of its school. At the head of this board is the mayor. 

Every German state manages its own school affairs. 

They are all similar in organization. Prussia v^^ill serve 

to describe all. It has a minister of public instruction. 

He represents educational interests in the 

In Germany. t-> • i i 

Reichstag, or parliament, and has super- 
vision over all the schools in the kingdom, v^^hether pub- 
lic or private, and of all grades. The country is divided 
into provinces, these into governments, and each govern- 
ment into districts. Every province has a board of edu- 
cation, Avith the president of the province at its head. 
He always has a professional school man as an assistant. 
The provincial board has charge of the higher grade 
secondary schools and the normal schools. 



SCHOOL SUPERVISION 845 

The governments also have school boards. These 
have charge of the elementary schools, the progymnasia, 
and the real schools of the second class. 

Each district, too, has a school board and an inspector, 
— an important official, who closely supervises the w^ork 
of the schools. There is, lastly, a local board in charge 
of each school. This has charge of the property, but 
has little voice in the conduct of the work. 

The organization of education in the United States 
leaves much to be desired. In this, more than in any- 
thing else, the heterogeneous character of j^ ^j^^ 
the schools works a positive disadvantage, united states. 

There is no national organization whatever. The 
largest units are the States. The national government 
exercises no supervision nor control except over its own 
schools, — those of the District of Columbia, the military 
and naval schools, and the Indian schools. At the peti- 
tion of the National Teachers' Association, however, the 
government in 1867 established the office of Commis- 
sioner of Education. It is his business to collect statis- 
tical and other information from all over the country and 
from without, and distribute this in published reports, 
thus keeping all portions of the country in touch with 
one another and unifying school effort. The present 
commissioner. Dr. William T. Harris, one of the ablest of 
all our school men, has done the country great service 
by means of his reports and the excellent pedagogical 
works which he has published or edited. 

The State organizations are good except as they are 
weakened by lack of proper supervision in the counties, 
townships, or districts. They exercise no control over 



346 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

private schools, whether secular or religious. When 
colleges and universities are not State mstitutions, they 
come under State direction only in this, that the State 
prescribes the conditions under which they may be char- 
tered and privileged to grant degrees. All the States 
and territories, with the exception of one of each, have 
superintendents. The functions of these officials vary in 
the different States. In some they receive the reports 
of the subordinate school districts, report to the legisla- 
ture, interpret the school law, apportion State appropria- 
tions, and endeavor to direct school legislation. In 
others, with the help of a proper board, they control 
almost the entire school machinery of the State, having 
charge of all examinations for teachers, of the institutes, 
and of the funds. In one State the superintendent 
appoints the superintendents of the counties. 

Many States supplement the office of the superintend- 
ent with a board of education. These boards some- 
times have charge of the examinations, sometimes of the 
funds, and sometimes of a special department of educa- 
tional work, as is the case in Minnesota. It has a Board 
of Commissioners on Preparatory Schools. The State 
of New York has a university organization somewhat 
resembling that of France. It comprises the incor- 
porated colleges and academies and some academic 
departments in the public schools. It is subject to the 
control and inspection of a governing body known as 
"The Regents of the University of the State of New 
York." 

The organization of the city schools is very good. 
Nearly every city in the country numbering five thousand 



SCHOOL SUPERVISION 847 

inhabitants or over has a superintendent, and many 
cities or boroughs less in population make similar pro- 
vision for the organization of their schools. 

Inadequacy of supervision is to be found in the coun- 
ties, townships, and districts. It is most disastrous in 
the rural districts, because a major portion of the 
teachers there lack professional training. A large ma- 
jority of the States have county organizations, but not 
all of these have county superintendents. Some have 
county boards of examiners. The county superintend- 
ents are in some States appointed by the governor ; in 
others, by county boards of education ; in others, by the 
school directors ; in still others, by popular vote. In 
some States they have a large sphere of activity, control- 
ling almost independently the conduct of institutes and 
the examination and licensing of teachers. In other 
States they are merely the executive agents of the State 
authorities. In some States the office exerts little direct 
influence on the schools, because the superintendent 
devotes himself strictly to office work, seldom or never 
visiting the schools. The extent of counties, too, often 
weakens the power of the office. 

In the New England States the units of organization 
are the towns (townships) and the cities. In Massachu- 
setts, for instance, there are no county school officials. 
Each town or city has an educational committee of three 
or some multiple of three. This committee is salaried 
and has control of the schools and the teachers. The 
system by no means secures professional supervision of 
the work done. To remedy this the towns or, under 
certain conditions, combinations of two or more towns, 



348 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

may order their school committees to employ superin- 
tendents. The cities all do this. The State superin- 
tendent also appoints four agents who visit schools. 
They, however, exercise no authority. The system is 
the inheritance of the old New England township system 
of government which has done so much for the develop- 
ment of intelligent democracy in America. Several 
other States, following the New England model, have 
similar systems with modifications. Michigan has a 
township system with township inspectors. 



XXX 

LATER PEDAGOGICAL LITERARY 
ACTIVITY 

Among the many proofs of the growth of interest in 
education there is none better than the extent and high 
character of the pedagogical Hterature now accumulating. 
A bare bibliography of each year's publications would 
fill a respectable volume. In the Central Pedagogical 
Library at Leipzig there are more than sixty-seven thou- 
sand books and pamphlets. In the Musee Pedagogique 
at Paris, founded in 1879, there are more than fifty 
thousand books. In the library of the Bureau of Edu- 
cation at Washington there are over fifty thousand books 
and one hundred and fifty thousand pamphlets. It 
would be interesting to make an analysis of this vast 
literature, and heap up, as the miser does his gold, the 
treasures of pedagogical thought which it contains ; but 
in a work of this character it is not 'possible to do this. 
It is barely possible to mention such works, not already 
discussed, as have been most prominent in awakening 
pedagogical interest in America and in directing pro- 
fessional study. 

Productive literary activity on educational subjects is 
greatest in Germany. The Germans also exercise a 
deeper influence on American pedagogic thought than 
any other people beyond the water, yet comparatively 

349 



350 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

little of their pedagogic literature reaches the American 
teaching public directly. Great works like Baumeister's 
Handhuch der Erziehung or the writings of Dittes and 
Von Raumer exert influence only indirectly through 
teachers who have studied in Germany or who are 
familiar with the German language, through furnishing 
material for English and American writers, or through 
partial translations. Preyer's studies of childhood have 
been translated, as also some of the most pronounced 
Herbartian literature, like Lange's Apperception and 
Rein's Outlines of Pedagogy. One of the most active of 
the Herbartian translators has been Dr. De Garmo, now 
professor of pedagogy in Cornell University. Pestalozzi 
and Froebel have fared well in translation. Rosen- 
kranz's able work on the Philosophy of Education has 
also been translated. 

Among the French writers one only, Professor Gabriel 
Compayre, of the normal school at Fontenay-aux-Roses, 
has found a large reading public among American 
teachers. His History of Pedagogy and Psychology Ap- 
plied to Education have been widely studied. 

For a time, the most famous British work was Her- 
bert Spencer's Education. It is a helpful book for clear- 
headed students, and has done noble service. Spencer 
was a learned and well-disciplined disciple of the " edu- 
cation according to Nature" school of which Rousseau 
had been the brilliant apostle in the preceding century. 
Joseph Payne's lectures, and Dr. Bain's Education as a 
Science have also secured a strong hold. The most gen- 
erally useful of all, probably, have been the historical 
writings of R. H. Quick and of Professor Laurie, of the 



LATER PEDAGOGICAL LITERARY ACTIVITY 351 

University of Edinburgh. Quick's Educational Reformers 
and Laurie's Rise of the Universities and Pre-Chistian 
Education have proved very valuable. Side by side 
with these also must be ranked the Lectures on Teach- 
ing and the Art of Questioning by school inspector J. G. 
Fitch. 

In the United States the first great accumulation of 
pedagogical literature of high character and from many 
sources was made and published in the American Jour- 
nal of Education. The numbers of this publication now 
form a large library. It was founded by Henry Barnard, 
a man who did for Connecticut what Horace Mann did 
for Massachusetts. The first systematic treatise on peda- 
gogy that could be used as a text-book and came into 
general use was prepared by David P. Page, first princi- 
pal of the first normal school in the State of New York. 
A pioneer work on School Economy was published by J. 
P. Wickersham, who was for many years superintendent 
of the schools of Pennsylvania. It was the forerunner 
of a number of excellent works devoted to this subject 
or some phase of it. Dr. Wickersham also wrote a 
comprehensive history of the growth of education in 
the State of Pennsylvania. Highly trained and enthu- 
siastic men and Avomen are constantly increasing the 
supply of books helpful to the teacher, and the number 
of first-class professional periodicals is very large. 

One of the best sources of our present pedagogical 
literature is found in the increasing number of depart- 
ments of pedagogy in the universities. Not only is there 
increase of number, but there is also wonderful improve- 
ment in the scope and character of the work. 



352 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

The vast and rapidly-increasing mass of professional 
literature accessible to the teacher is one of the best 
evidences of the breadth, depth, and lofty 
character of present educational interest. 
Never before did it reach so high a tide. So extensive 
has been the development of educational effort that it is 
not possible to trace it fairly everywhere. Nothing, for 
instance, has been said of Japan, and yet Japan now has 
a thoroughly-organized, modern, and progressive system 
of education. The colonies of the British empire, too, 
which have been barely mentioned, rank among the 
foremost peoples educationally. Wherever, indeed, the 
influence of modern civilization has extended, there 
schools and colleges spring up and flourish. 

Human life now has attained such breadth of organi- 
zation, such complexity of activity, such depth of gener- 
osity and height of aspiration as to present at least a 
decided prophecy of its ultimate exalted brotherhood. 
Herein lies the deepest inspiration of modern education. 
No institution better reveals its truest and best character 
than the school for the feeble-minded. This institution 
is society with a tender heart reaching down a strong 
right hand to shattered fragments of humanity to lift 
them up, seeking with utmost patience to perfect as 
nearly as possible their growth in manhood, usefulness, 
and happiness. For the true end of education is to make 
men men and women women, magnificent in mind and 
body, noble of heart, and royal in character, ready to 
respond, at their own initiative, purely and righteously 
to every challenge which private and social life brings to 
them from day to day. 



LATER PEDAGOGICAL LITERARY ACTIVITY 353 



There is much yet to be accompHshed. A comparison 
of the real with the ideal causes the heart to sink. 
Every stage of educational growth, like every stage of 
social development, is to be found illustrated somewhere. 
The crude and antiquated exists sometimes side by side 
with the most modern and best. But the marvellous 
changes for the better that are now so rapidly taking 
place are sufficient to keep alive abundant hope for the 
future. 



HISTORICAL SUMMARY 

Lancaster opened a monitorial school in London 

West Point Military Academy established 

Pestalozzi's school at Yverdun opened . 

University of France established .... 

Emma Hart's seminary for ladies at Middleburg, Vermont 
opened ........ 

Herbart made professor at Konigsberg . 

State superintendency established in New York 

War between United States and England 

Napoleonic wars ended ..... 

Connecticut asylum for deaf and dumb established 

First "real" high school in the United States opened in 
Boston ........ 

Elective system begun at Harvard .... 

Rensselaer technical school established . 

Education nationalized in Ireland .... 

Massachusetts institution for the blind opened 

Oberlin College opened as a coeducational institution 

State free-school law enacted in Pennsylvania 

Mount Holyoke College founded .... 

Kindergarten opened at Blankenburg by Froebel . 

Normal school opened at Lexington, Massachusetts 

S. S. Green made professor of didactics in Brown Uni- 
versity ......... 

23 



1798 

1802 
1805 
1806 

1808 
1809 
1812 
1812-1814 
1815 
1815 



1821 
1824 
1824 
1831 
1832 
1833 
1834 
1836 
1837 
1839 

1850 



354 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION 



First Kindergarten opened in the United States by Mrs 
Schurz ........ 

National land appropriations made for agricultural col 
leges ....... 

United States Bureau of Education established 

Education nationalized in England 

Girton College, England, opened . 

University extension movement begun . 

Chautauqua Assembly established . 

Education made compulsory in Italy 

Education made compulsory in France . 



1855 

1862 
1867 
1870 
1872 
1873 
1874 
1877 
1882 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

GENERAL HISTORIES OF PEDAGOGY. 

Browning, Educational Theories. New York, 1882. 

Compayre, G. Boston, 1896. 

Davidson, Thomas. New York, 1900. 

Dittes, F. Leipzig, 1873. 

Encyclopedia Britannica. 

History for Ready Reference, Vol. I. Springfield, 1895. 

Painter, F. V. N. New York, 1894. 

Paros, J. Paris, 1883. 

Schmidt, Karl. Kothen, 1876. 

Seeley, L. New York, 1899. 

The best compact body of information concerning the ancient 
Oriental and the pagan Greek and Roman systems of education 
is to be found in Pre-Christian Education. Laurie. London and 
New York, 1895. 

SPECIAL HISTORIES 

China. 

Biot, E. Essai sur I'histoire de 1' instruction publique en 

Chine. Paris, 1845. 
Martin, W. A. P. The Chinese. New York, 1881. 

India. 

Mliller, F. M. History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature. Lon- 
don, 1860. 

Persia. 

Rawlinson. The Five Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern 
World. London, 1862-67. 

Egypt. 

Maspero, G. The Dawn of Civilization. London, 1891. 
Rawlinson. Moses : His Life and Times. London, 1887. 

365 



356 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

The Semitic Nations. 

Hilprecht, H. V. Recent Research in Bible Lands. Phila- 
delphia, 1897. 
Maspero. Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria. London, 1891. 
Sayce. The Babylonians and Assyrians. London, 1888. 
Smith, W. R. The Prophets of Israel. Edinburgh, 1889. 
Spiers, The School System of the Talmud. London, 1899. 
Strassburger. Geschichte der Erziehung und des Unterrichts 

bei den Israeliten. Stuttgart, 1885. 
Trumbull. The Sunday-School. Philadelphia, 1888. 

Greece. 

Aristotle. Politics. Welldon, trans. London, 1883. 

Burt. History of Greek Philosophy. Boston, 1889. 

Capes, W. W. University Life in Ancient Athens. New 

York, 1877. 
Davidson. Education of the Greek People. New York, 1894. 
Aristotle and Ancient Educational Ideals. New 
York, 1892. 
Grasberger. Erziehung und Unterricht im classischen Alter- 

thum. Wiirzburg, 1867-81. 
Krause, C. J. H. Geschichte der Erziehung. Halle, 1851. 
Mahaffy. Old Greek Education. New York, 1882. 
Plato. Meno. Mackay, trans. London, 1869. 

Republic. Davies and Vaughn, trans. New York, 

1895. 
Laws. Bohn Library. London. 
Wilkins. National Education in Greece. London, 1873. 

Rome. 

Cicero. De Oratore. Watson, trans. New York, 1871. 
Clarke, G. Education of Children at Rome. New York, 

1896. 
Kingsley, C. Alexandria and her Schools. London, 1880. 
Quintilian. Institutes of Oratory. Watson, trans. London, 

1882. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 357 

EARLY AND MEDI-^VAL CHRISTIAN EDUCATION 

Bryce. The Holy Roman Empire. New York, 1887. 

Compayre. Abelard and Origin of Universities. New York, 1893. 

Drane. Christian Schools and Scholars. London, 1881. 

Draper, J. W. Intellectual Development of Europe. New York. 

Encyclopedia Britannica. Monachism. 

Green. History of English People. New York, 1881. 

Lacroix. Science and Literature in Middle Ages. New York, 1887. 

Laurie. Rise of the Universities, New York, 1887. 

Mullinger. Schools of Charles the Great. London, 1877. 

Rashdall. Universities of Europe in Middle Ages. Oxford, 1895. 

Townsend. The Great Schoolmen of the Middle Ages. London, 

1881. 
West. Alcuin and the Rise of Christian Schools. New York, 

1892. 

GENERAL WORKS, COVERING THE PERIOD SINCE 
THE RENAISSANCE 

Paulsen. Geschichte des Gelehrten Unterrichts. Leipzig, 1885. 
Quick. Educational Reformers. New York, 1893. 
Raumer. Geschichte der Padagogik. Giitersloh, 1880. 
Williams. Modern Education. Syracuse, 1899. 

SPECIAL WORKS, COVERING THE PERIOD OF 
RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION 

Ascham. The Scholemaster. Mayor, ed. London, 1863. 
Bacon. The Advancement of Learning. Wright, ed. Oxford, 

1880. 
Besant. Readings in Rabelais. London, 1883. 
Browning. Aspects of Education. New York, 1892. 
Draper. Intellectual Development of Europe. New York. 
Green. History of English People. New York, 1881. 
Hamlyn. Universities of Europe at the Time of the Reformation. 

Oxford, 1876. 
Hughes. Loyola and the Educational System of the Jesuits. New 

York, 1892. 



•358 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 

Luther. Padagogische Schriften. Keferstein, ed. Langensalza, 
1888. 

Montaigne. The Education of Children. New York, 1891. 

Mulcaster. Positions. Quick, ed. London, 1888. 

Reichenbach. ZwingU's Christian Education. College ville, Penn- 
sylvania, 1899. 

Symonds. Short History of Renaissance in Italy. New York, 
1893. 

Taine. The Pagan Renaissance, in History of English Litera- 
ture. New York, 1879. 

POST-REFORMATION PERIOD 

Adams. Good Samaritans. London, 1883. (Account of the work 
of Colet, Ascham, Montaigne, Swift, Lancaster, Bell, Oberlin, 
and Arnold.) 

Bell. Mutual Tuition and Moral Discipline. London, 1823. 

Boone. Education in the United States. New York, 1889. 

Bo wen. Frobel and Education by Activity. New York, 1892. 

Bremner. Education of Girls in Great Britain. London, 1897. 

Burstall, Sarah. Education of Girls in the United States. Lon- 
don, 1894. 

Butler. Life of Fenelon. Philadelphia, 1811. 

Comenius. Orbis Pictus. Bardeen. Syracuse, 1887. 

The Great Didactic. Keatinge, trans. London, 1896. 

Davidson. Rousseau. New York, 1898. 

De Garmo. Herbart and Herbartianism. New York, 1895. 

De Guimps. Life and Work of Pestalozzi. RusseU, trans. New 
York, 1895. 

Fenelon. The Education of Girls. Lupton, trans. Boston, 1891. 

Francke. Schriften ueber Erziehung und Unterricht. Leipzig. 

Froebel. The Education of Man. Hailman, trans. New York, 
1887. 

Gill. Systems of Education. Boston, 1887. 

Goring. Basedow's Ausgewahlte Schriften. Langensalza, 1880. 

Grant. History of Burgh and Parish Schools of Scotland. Lon- 
don, 1870. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 359 

Harris. Reports of United States Bureau of Education, 

Herbart. The Science of Education. Boston, 1895. 

Holman. English National Education. London, 1898. 

Jackson. The Life of Francke. London, 1887. 

Krause. Radtke im Lichte seiner Zeit. Leipzig, 1872. 

Lange and De Garmo. Herbart's Outlines of Educational Doc- 
trine. New York, 1901. 

Laurie. Life and Work of Comenius. Boston, 1885. 

Locke. Some Thoughts concerning Education. London, 1884. 

Mann, Mary. Life of Horace Mann. Boston, 1891. 

Marenholtz-Biilow, Bertha. Reminiscences of Froebel. Mary 
Mann, trans. Boston, 1892. 

Martin. Evolution of the Massachusetts Public School System. 
New York, 1894. 

Milton. Tractate on Education. London, 1890, 

Montaigne. The Education of Children. New York, 1891, 

Pestalozzi. Leonard and Gertrude. Boston, 1888. 

How Gertrude Teaches Her Children. London, 1894. 

Rosmini-Serbati. The Ruling Principle of Method. Mrs. Gray, 
trans. Boston, 1887. 

Rousseau. Emile. Payne, trans. New York, 1893. 

Russell. German Higher Education. New York, 1898. 

Smith, D. E. Teaching of Elementary Mathematics. New York, 
1901. 

ToUemache. The French Jansenists. London, 1893. 

Wilson, Mrs. R. F. The Christian Brothers. London, 1883. 

Young, J. W. The Teaching of Mathematics in the Higher Schools 
of Prussia. New York, 1900. 



INDEX 



■A. PAGE 

Abacus 67, 68 

Abelard 128, 141 

Academy in Athenian gymnasium 68, 77 

in Jesuit schools 191 

in the United States 327, 328 

school of philosophy in 73, 77 

Advancement of Learning, Bacon's 198, 199 

^sop 87, 115 

Aglauros 69 

Agricola, Rudolph 156, 157, 159 

Agricultural schools 331, 332 

Ahriman 35 

Ahura-Mazda 35 

Aims in Education, Athenian 63, 64, 92 

Bacon's 198, 199 

Chinese 18, 24, 25 

Hebrew 47, 52 

Hindu 33 

Locke's 218 

of chivalry 133, 135 

of Comenius 211 

Persian 36 

Pestalozzi's 290 

Port Royal 231 

Pythagorean 71 

Roman 92 

Rousseau's 258, 264 

scholastic 127 

Spartan 58 

Sturm's 176 

Alchemy 131, 132 

361 



362 INDEX 

FAGB 

Alcuin 124 

Alexandria, catechetical school of 107, 108 

University of 90, 91 

Alfred the Great 125 

Algebra at University of Alexandria 91 

Descartes's additions to 241 

Hindu 32 

Saracen 131 

American Society for University Extension 340 

Amman, John Conrad 334 

Anatomy in Pedagogium 239 

in University of Alexandria 91 

Ancestral worship 17 

Apollo, worship of, in Athenian schools 65 

Apperception, Herbart's theory of 299, 300, 316 

Lange's theory of 317, 350 

Apprentice teachers 305, 319 

Aquinas, St. Thomas 127, 128 

Arabic notation 131 

Arabs. (See Saracens.) 

Architecture, Egyptian training for 42 

present training for 331 

Areopagus 65 

Argyropulus 157, 158 

Aristotle 32, 66, 78-80 

Saracen translation of 131 

scholastic use of 127 

Arithmetic, Athenian 67, 68 

concrete primary study of 289, 317 

Egyptian 42 

Hindu 30 

in burgher schools 137 

in monastic schools 114 

Saracen 131 

Arnold, Dr. Thomas 324 

Ascham, Roger 181-183 

Assyria 45 

Astronomy, Babylonian 45 

Hindu 31, 32 

in monastic schools 116 



INDEX 363 

PAGE 

Astronomy in University of Alexandria 91 

Saracen 131 

Athenaeum 89 

Athens 55, 62-83 

Attendance 32, 51, 303-310 

Aurelius, Marcus 81, 89 

Austria 250, 269, 303 

B 

Babylon 45 

Bacon, Roger 194 

Bacon, Sir Francis 198-200, 208, 214, 241 

influence of, on Comenius 200 

Instauratio of 198, 199 

services of 198 

Baeda, or Bede 118-120 

Bain 350 

Barnard, Henry 351 

Barop 293 

Basedow 265-268 

Basil 126 

Batty, Rev 215 

Beecher, Catherine 337 

Bell, Andrew 280 

Benedict, St 112, 126 

Benedictine monks 112, 149 

Bible, Colet's lectures on. New Testament 155 

educational value of Luther's translation of 167, 168 

Greek, New Testament of Erasmus 161 

school, Hebrew 51 

study in Melanchthon's school plan 174 

in Sturm's gymnasium 177, 179 

of, among Brethren of the Common Life 156 

Wessel's interest in 156 

Zwingli's advocacy of study of 165 

Blackwell, Elizabeth 338 

Blankenburg 294 

Blind, schools for the 335, 336 

Boccaccio 152 

Boethius 1 16, 125 



364 INDEX 

PAGB 

Bologna, University of 140-142 

Book of Methods, Basedow's 265 

Boston Girls' High School 338 

Latin School 226 

Brahmans 27, 32 

Brethren of the Christian Schools 231, 304 

of the Common Life 155, 156 

British and Foreign School Society 280 

Bryn Mawr 337 

Bureau of Education in the United States 345, 349 

Burgher schools 137, 225 

Francke's 237, 238, 239 

O 

Calculus 241 

Cambridge University 144, 339 

Campe 268 

Carlisle Indian School 334 

Carvilius, Spurius 85 

Cassian, John Ill, 112 

Castes, Hindu 27, 28 

Catechetical schools 107, 108 

Catechumens 107 

Cathedral schools 107, 120 

Chancellor 142 

Charlemagne 122-125 

Chautauqua 340, 341 

Chemistry in Pedagogium 239 

Saracen contributions to 131, 132 

Chicago University «331, 340 

Child study 219 

Dr. Hall's vrork in 341 

Locke's views concerning 219 

Preyer's work in 341, 350 

Rousseau's influence on 264 

China 17-25 

Chivalry 132-136, 150 

Christian Schools, Brothers of the 231, 269 

Chrodegang, Bishop 120 

Chrysolauras, Emanuel 153 



INDEX 365 

PAGE 

Cicero 87, 88, 115 

Classical literature, Chinese 22 

early Christian hostility to 117 

Egyptian 43 

Greek and Roman, in Roman schools 87 

in Athenian schools 66 

in University of Constantinople 126 

Hindu 29, 30 

in American colleges 329 

in Jesuit schools 187, 188, 189 

in monastic schools, Vergil 115 

in secondary schools of the Renaissance 171-179 

in Sturm's school 176-178 

in universities 154 

Persian 37 

Colet, John 154, 155, 159, 161, 171, 172 

Colleges, American colonial 228, 272 

coeducational 338 

Egyptian 42 

for women, American 337 

English 339 

French 325 

later American 272, 329-331 

Columba, St 112 

Columbia University 272 

Comenius, John Amos 206-217, 218, 240 

aims and principles of 211, 212 

Didactica Magna of 208 

educational periods of 210, 211 

his theory of elementary education 209, 210 

of expression 212, 213 

office and labors of 207, 208 

OrMs Pictus of 216 

pansophic scheme of 214 

realism of 212 

text-books of 214-216 

Commissioner of Education, United States 345 

Common School Journal 313 

Compayrg 350 

Compulsory education, ancient 36, 61, 58 



366 INDEX 

PAQB 

Compulsory education, English 306 

French 305 

German 281, 302 

in the United States 310 

Italian 307 

Norwegian 269, 303 

Spanish 306 

Conduct of Schools, La Salle's 232, 233 

Confucius 17-24 

biography of 23 

relation of, to Chinese social system 17 

social system of 23, 24 

worship of, by students 21 

Congregations, Christian, as schools 106, 107 

Consiliarius in universities 142 

Constantine, founder of medical school 139 

Counter-Reformation 184 

County supervision 347 

Crotona 70 

Cynosarges 68 

D 

Davies, Miss E 339 

Deaf and dumb, schools for the 333, 335 

De Garmo 350 

De Geer 215, 216 

Degrees, Chinese 19, 20 

University 143 

Deism 253, 254, 268, 269 

De Leon, Pedro Ponce 334 

De l'Ep6e, Abbe 334 

Demia, Charles 232 

Descartes 241, 271 

Deventer 156 

Diana Orthia 59 

Didactica Magna 208, 209, 211-214 

Didaskaleion 65-68 

Diophantus 91 

Discipline 21, 30, 59, 65, 121, 143, 144, 191 

Disputation in Jesuit schools 190 



INDEX 367 

PAQB 

Doctor 143 

Domestic education, Hebrew 47, 48 

Dominicans 149 

Donatus 115 

Drawing 211, 219, 261, 268 

Duns Scotus 128 

E 

Education of Girls 221, 222 

Egyptians 39-44 

Elective courses of study 329 

Elementarie 200 

Elementary Book, Basedow's 266 

Elementary education, Comenius's theory of 209, 210 

growth of, in Europe ....*. 269, 279, 302-307 

improvements in courses of study in 315 

in the United States 272, 307-314 

Luther's appeal for 167, 168 

Massachusetts law concerning 226, 227 

modern changes in methods of 316, 317 

popular 308 

Emile, Rousseau's 257-264, 265 

Emulation in Jesuit schools 190, 191 

Endowment of colleges and universities in the United States. .331 

Engineering 42 

England 118, 120, 144, 154, 155, 171, 172, 181-183, 200, 214, 

217-221, 270, 271, 279, 280, 305, 306, 319, 325, 339, 343 

Ephebi, Athenian 69 

Epictetus 81 

Epicureans 81, 82 

Epicurus 81, 82 

Episcopal schools 107, 120 

Erasmus 158-161, 166, 172, 174 

Eratosthenes 91 

Erfurt University 144, 236 

Erigena 127, 129 

Ernesti 251 

Esquire, training of 134 

Eton 324 

Euclid 91, 116, 131 



368 INDEX 

PAGE 

Evening Hours of a Hermit 285 

Examinations, Chinese 19, 20 

Expression, Froebel's theory of ,. 297, 298 

Milton's view of language 217 

Pestalozzi's theory of 289 

. theory. of Gomenius concerning .... 212, 213 



F 

Faculties in mediaeval universities .' 143 

in modern universities 327 

Feeble-minded children, schools for 336 

Felbiger, von, John Ignacius 250, 269 

Fenelon 221-224, 242 

his experience as a tutor 223 

methods of 223 

tales of 223, 224 

theory of, on female education 221, 222 

Fitch, J. G 351 

France Ill, 122-125, 126-129, 194-197, 221-224, 229-234, 

256-264, 281, 304, 305, 315, 318, 319, 325, 343, 344 

Franciscans 149 

Francke 235-240, 241 

burgher schools of 237, 238, 239 

Pedagogium of 239 

training school of 240 

Frederick the Great 250, 269 

Frederick William III 280 

Froebel 291-293, 316, 341 

his Education of Man 296, 297 

his institute for teachers 296 

schools of 293, 294 

the Kindergarten of 294, 295 

Funds, State school 308, 309 

a 

Galileo 194 

Gallaudet, Rev. T. H 334 

Gargantua 194 

Gemara 51 



INDEX 369 

PAGE 

Geography, field work in 260, 289 

in Babylon and Nineveh 45 

in burgher schools 137 

in Greece 68 

in theory of Erasmus 160 

in University of Alexandria 91 

Saracen 131 

Geometry, analytical 241 

Egyptian 42 

Greek 68, 70, 71 

in monastic schools 116 

in Roman schools 91 

Pythagoreantheorem 71 

Saracen 131 

Germany 137, 154-161, 165-170, 172-179, 181, 182, 200-206, 

235-240, 249, 271, 302, 303, 323, 324, 344, 345, 350 

Gifts, Kindergarten 295 

Girton College 339 

Grammar, Babylonian 45 

early German and French 181 

Greek 68, 72 

Hindu 31, 32 

in University of Alexandria 90, 91 

Lilly's 172 

of Donatus and Priscian , 115 

Ratich's method of 204 

Saracen 131 

Greece 55, 82 

achievements of 56 

Athenian elementary education in 64-68 

philosophy of 73-82 

secondary education in 69-72 

Sparta 57-62 

Grocyn 154, 159 

Groot, Gerhart 155 

Grundling 271 

Guericke 194 

Guilds 136 

Guizot 304, 318 

Gymnasium, Athenian 68, 69 

24 



370 INDEX 

PAQB 

Gymnasium, Melanchthon's relation to German 173 

present German 323 

Spartan 59 

Sturm's 175-179 

H 

Hall, G. Stanley 341 

Halle 235, 271 

Hampton Industrial School 334 

Handbook for Children 174 

Harris, William T 345 

Hart, Emma (Mrs. Willard) 337 

Hartlib, Samuel 214, 217 

Harvard University 228, 272, 329, 331 

Harvey 194 

Hatiy, Valentine 335 

Hebrew study, humanistic revival of 156, 158 

Hebrews 46-52 

Hecker, Johann Julius 249 

Heinicke ~ 334 

Helots 58 

Herbart 298-300, 316 

Herbartians ' 300 

Hesiod 66 

History 160, 169, 194, 196 

Hocker, Ludwig 270 

Holland 155, 156, 225, 226 

Homer 60, 66 

Hornbook 227, 228 

How Gertrude Teaches Her Children 288 

Howe, S. G 335 

Humanism 151-155 

in Jesuit schools 187-192 

in secondary education 171-179, 323-325 

new 251 

Hypatia 91 

I 

Iliad 66 

Illiteracy, statistics of 303-305,307,311 



INDEX 371 

PAoa 

India 26-33 

Inductive philosophy 198 

Industrial training, Ferdinand Kinderman's theory of 269 

Francke's theory of 239 

Locke's theory of 220 

Pestalozzi's theory of 285, 287 

present theory of 333-335 

Rousseau's theory of 260 

Innovators 194-224 

Instauratio Magna 198, 199 

Institutes of Oratory, Quintilian's 88, 89 

Institutes, teachers' 320 

Irnerius 140 

Italy 139-142, 152-154, 306, 307, 319 

J 

Jansenists 229-231 

Janua Linguarum 214, 215, 239 

Jesuits 184-192 

as teachers 192 

organization of 186, 187 

Ratio studiorum of 187 

schools of 187-192 

Jesus 97-104 

life of 97 

mission of 98 

pedagogy of 101-104 

principles of doctrine of 100 

relation of, to childhood 99 

to men 98, 99 

Johns Hopkins 331, 340 

K 

Kant, Immanuel 266, 272, 298 

Kempis, a, Thomas 156, 157 

Kepler 194 

Kindergarten 290, 294, 295, 321, 322 

Kinderman, Ferdinand 269 

Knight 133, 134, 150 

Koran 131, 132 



372 INDEX 



L PAOB 

Laboratories in Pedagogium 239 

Lancaster, Joseph 279, 280 

Lange 350 

Langethal 293 

Language, Chinese 24 

method of, in Philanthiopin 267 

methods of Comenius 214-216 

modern 180, 181, 193, 200, 238 

Sanskrit 29 

La Salle 231-234 

Conduct of Schools of 232, 233 

normal schools of . . 234 

schools of 232 

simultaneous teaching of 234 

Latest Method of Teaching Language 215 

Latin, Ascham's method of teacliing 182-183 

Comenius's method of teaching 213 

Philanthropin method of teaching 267 

Ratich's method of teaching 205 

Laurie 350 

Law for education of Hebrew children 48, 51 

Hebrew study of 49, 51 

Hindu study of 31 

Mohammedan 131 

Roman study of 88 

study of, at Bologna 140 

Lawrence Scientific School 329 

Learning, Braham 32 

Hebrew 50, 5 1 

Mohammedan 130-132, 138 

Revival of, in Italy 152-154 

in Teutonic countries 154-161 

value of, in China 18 

Leibnitz 241, 271 

Leonard and Gertrude 285, 286 

Libraries in Alexandria 90 

in Babylon and Nineveh 45 

in Italy 154 



INDEX 373 

PAGB 

Library, Central Pedagogical, in Leipzig 349 

Musee Pedagogique, Paris 349 

of United States Bureau of Education 349 

Lilly, William 171, 172 

Locke, John 217-221, 254, 271 

character of his work 218 

health rules of 219 

his theory of intellectual training 219 

of moral training 220 

of physical training 220 

Logic 31, 80, 81, 115, 126, 178, 179, 211 

Lombard, Peter 141 

Loyola, Ignatius 184-187 

Luther, Martin 165-170 

appeal for state schools by 167, 168 

pedagogical theories of 169, 170 

supervision of schools by 170 

translation of Bible by 166, 167 

Lyceum 68, 79 

French 325 

Lycurgus 58, 60 

Lyon, Mary > • • > ? 1 1 1 1 « f * * « 1 r > 1 1 * • > t • « • 1 1 1 1 • « • f 1 1 » * • < r < > t < 337 



M 

Magi, Persian 37 

Magistri 143 

Maintenon, Madame de 242 

Mann, Horace 311-314, 351 

Manual training in Finland and other countries 315 

in Pedagogium 239 

Kinderman's use of 269 

Locke's theory of 220 

Rousseau's theory of 260 

Marenholtz-Biilow, Baroness 321 

Medicine, Egyptian study of 42 

in University of Alexandria 91 

of Salerno : ^39, 140 

Melanchthon, Philip 172-175 

Mencius 22 



374 INDEX 

FAQB 

Middendorf 293 

Military training in French elementary schools 315 

in United States Academy 332 

of chivalry 133, 134 

Persian 36 

Spartan 61 

Miller, Lewis 340 

Milton, John 217 

Mishna 51 

Model, or practice, schools, Herbart's 299 

in the United States 320 

in Vienna 250 

Mohammedan education 130-132 

Monastery 113 

Monastic schools 114-120 

Monasticism 110-114, 130, 133, 135 

Basil's 126 

growth and decay of 149, 150 

John Cassian's Ill, 112 

nature and origin of 110, 111 

Pachomius's Ill 

St. Benedict's 112, 149 

St. Colomba's 112 

Monitorial system in Hindu schools 30 

in Pestalozzi's school at Stanz .287 

of Bell and Lancaster 279, 280 

Montaigne 195-197, 218 

Morals, Chinese system of 23, 24 

Locke's theory of training in 220 

Persian training in 37 

Spartan training in 60 

Stoic 81 

Mother Play and Nursery Songs 295 

Mother schools 322 

Mount Holyoke Female Seminary 337 

Mulcaster, Richard 200 

Musee Pedagogique 349 

Muses, worship of, in Athenian schools 65 

Museum, Alexandrian 90, 91 

Music, Athenian training in 63, 66 



INDEX 375 

PAQB 

Music, Hebrew 49 

in chivalry 133 

in monastic schools 114, 116 

Luther's advocacy of 169 

science of 71 

Spartan 60, 61 

N 

Napoleon 281 

National appropriation of land 272, 273, 308, 309 

Society, English 280 

university 273 

Nations in universities 142 

Native languages, Montaigne's opinion of 196 

Mulcaster's opinion of 200 

Rabelais's opinion of 194 

Ratke's use of 204 

use of, in universities 271 

Natural education, Comenius's theory of 211, 212 

in Froebel's Kindergarten 294, 295 

in Pestalozzi's work 287-291 

in Port Royalist effort 230 

Ratke's propositions concerning 202 

Rousseau's theories of 257-261 

Spencer's theory of 350 

Nature study in Philanthropin 268 

in Pestalozzi's schools 289 

in public schools 317 

Luther's views on 169 

Rousseau's advocacy of 260 

Zwingli's advocacy of 165 

Neo-Platonism 78, 79, 91 

New Testament of Erasmus 161 

Newton, Sir Isaac 194, 241, 271 

Nicholas V., Pope 154 

Normal schools, early German and Austrian 249, 250 

English 319 

courses of study in 320 

Francke's 240 

French 318, 319 



376 INDEX 

PAGE 

Normal schools in Massachusetts 319 

La Salle's 234 

present 290, 319, 320 

Notre Dame, cathedral school of 141 

Novum Organum 198, 199 

O 

Oberlin College 328 

Oelinger, Albert 181 

Odyssey 66, 85, 86 

Oratory of Jesus 229 

Oratory, Quintilian's Institutes on 88, 89 

Roman schools of 88 

Sophists' teaching of 72 

teachers of, salaried by Aurelius 89 

Oriis Pictus 216, 239, 266 

Ormazd 35 

Oxenstiern 206, 215 

Oxford 144 

P 

Psedonomus 59 

Paedotribe 64 

Page, David P 351 

Page, training of a 133 

Palace School of Alfred the Great 125 

of Charlemagne 124 

of Charles the Bald 127 

Palaestra, the Athenian 64, 65 

Pansophic scheme of Comenius 214 

Pantsenus 107 

Paris, University of 141, 142 

Parishad 31 

Parker, Colonel Francis 317, 318 

Pausanias 62 

Payne, Joseph 350 

Peabody, Miss Elizabeth 321 

Pedagogium 239 

Pedagogue 64, 68 

Pedagogy, Aristotle's theory of 80 



INDEX 377 

PAGE 

Pedagogy in universities 250, 251, 319, 321 

influence of Kant on 272 

of modern science on 278 

of Jesus 101, 104 

Plato's treatise on 78 

Quintilian's views on 89 

Pedagogy, Parker's Talks on 318 

Pentathlon 69 

Perioeci 57, 58, 61 

Persia 34-38 

Pestalozzi 282-291, 298, 316, 341 

at Burgdorf , 288 

at Stanz 287 

at Yverdun 288, 289 

first eflForts of 284 

industrial school of 285 

life purpose of 283, 284 

Petrarch 151, 152 

Philanthropin, The 265, 269 

Philosophy, Athenian schools of, closed 126 

Bacon's inductive 198 

early Greek 70 

Epicurean 82 

great Greek schools of 73-82 

Hindu 30, 31 

ideal 77, 78 

in Jesuit schools 188 

in mediaeval schools 127 

inductive work of Aristotle in 79 

Neo-Platonic 78, 79, 91 

Peripatetic 79, 80 

Pythagorean 71 

revival of, in universities 271 

Saracen translation of Aristotle's 131 

Stoic , 80-82 

Philosophy of Education, Rosenkranz'a 350 

Phonic method 230 

Physical training, Aschara's advocacy of 182 

Athenian elementary 64 

gymnastic 69 



378 INDEX 

PAGE 

Physical training in Philanthropin 266 

Locke's theory of 220 

Luther's advocacy of 169 

Montaigne's advocacy of 197 

of chivalry 133, 134 

of Persians 36 

of Spartans 59, 61 

Rousseau's theory of 259, 260 

Zwingli's advocacy of 165 

Pietists 235 

Plato 77, 78, 182 

Port Royal, Little Schools of 230 

methods 230, 231 

Prelection in Jesuit schools 189 

Preyer 350 

Priests, education of Christian, in cathedral schools ....107,120 

in universities 141 

of Egyptian 42, 43 

of Hebrew 48, 49 

of Persian 37 

Princeton University 272, 329 

Printing press 153 

Priscian 115 

Procurator 142 

Prodicus 72 

Professional training of teachers 192^ 234, 240, 249-251, 

296, 299, 31', 319-321, 324 

Prophets, schools of Hebrew 49 

Protagoras 72 

Prussia 269 

Psychology, Aristotle's 79 

in Jesuit schools 188 

John Locke's 217 

Plato's 78 

the new 279 

Ptolemy 90 

Public schools, city 227 

Connecticut law concerning 227 

early Dutch 225, 226 

French organization of 281 



INDEX 379 

PAGE 

Public schools, Luther's appeal for 167, 168 

Massachusetts law concerning 226, 227 

Prussian organization of 280, 281 

recent growth of, in France 304, 305 

in Germany 303 

in Great Britain 305-307 

in other European countries 307 

in the United States 272, 307-314 

Scotch 229 

secondary, for girls 338 

in the United States 337, 338 

Pythagoras 70-72 



Quadrivium 90, 120 

Queen's College 338 

Quick, R. H 350, 351 

Quincy schools 317, 318 

Quintilian 88, 89, 115, 182 

R 

Rabbins, Hebrew 49, 50 

Rabelais 194 

Raikes, Robert 270 

Ramus, Pierre 181 

Ratich 200-206, 208, 265 

claims of 201 

educational principles of 202, 203 

methods of 204, 205 

school of 203-206 

Ratio Studiorum 187 

Real schools 249 

Becker's 249 

Present German 323, 324 

Realism in Francke's Pedagogium 239 

in United States colleges and universities 329, 330 

secondary schools 328 

of Comenius 212 

of Locke 219 

of Luther 169 



380 INDEX 

PAGE 

Realism of Milton 217 

of Montaigne 196 

of Rabelais 194 

of Rousseau 257-262 

of Zwingli 165 

Rector 142 

Reformation 162-170 

origin of 162 

relation of, to state education and elementary schools 162, 163 

Regents of New York University 346 

Rein, Professor 350 

Religion, ancient Persian 35, 36 

Egyptian 43, 44 

Hebrew 46, 47, 51, 52 

Hindu 28, 29 

in control of schools 241, 316 

in Jesuit schools 192 

in Melanchthon's school plan 174, 179 

in Philanthropin 268 

in public schools 316 

in school of Pythagoras 70, 71 

in schools of Christian Brothers 233 

in Sturm's gymnasium 176, 177, 179 

relation of, to Persian education 35, 36 

Renaissance 151-161 '/ 

in Italy 152-154, 155 

in Teutonic countries 154-161 

nature of 151.^ 

Repetition in Jesuit schools 190 

Results of education among the Hebrews 52 

in China 24, 25 

in India 32, 33 

in Persia 37, 38 

in Sparta 61, J2 

Reuchlin 157, 158, 172, 173 

Revival of Learning 151-161 

Rhetoric, development of, by Sophists 73 

Hindu 31,32 

in classical secondary schools 178, 179 

in monastic schools 115 



INDEX 381 

PAGE 

Rhetoric in University of Alexandria 90 

Saracen 131 

teachers of, salaried at Rome 89 

Rhodes 88 

Roelanstan, Adam 226 

Rollin, Ledru 248, 249 

Rome 84-96 

Rosenkranz 350 

Rosmini-Serbati 300, 301 

Rote learning 21, 30, 31, 51, 202 

Rousseau 195, 217, 255-264, 350 

Rugby 324 

S 

Salerno University 139, 140 

Salzman 268 

Saracen learning 32, 130-132 

Saxony school plan 174 

Scholastica, Sister 116 

Scholasticism 126-129 

Scholemaster, The 181-183 

Schoolmen, the 126-129 

Schools, Athenian elementary 64-68 

higher 68-82 

Burgher 137, 225 

catechetical 107, 108 

cathedral 107, 120 

Chinese, first grade 21, 22 

higher grade 22 

classical secondary 171-192 

continuation 303, 323, 324, 340 

early secondary in the United States 327, 328 

Egyptian elementary 41 

college 42 

elementary in the United States 272, 307-314 

for the blind 335, 336 

deaf and dumb 334, 335 

feeble-minded 336 

Francke's 237-240 

German secondary 323, 324 



382 INDEX 

PAGE 

Schools, Hebrew 49, 51 

Hindu elementary 30 

higher 31 

industrial 333-335 

maintenance of Chinese 18 

mediaeval parochial 121 

Mohammedan 130-132 

monastic 1 14-120 

of Christian Brothers 231, 304 

of oratory 88 

of the Jesuits 184-192 

other European secondary 324, 325, 336 

Port Royal 230, 231 

Persian 36 

present European elementary 269, 279, 302-307 

secondary in the United States 328, 337, 338 

state system of, in India 27 

Roman elementary 86 

secondary 87 

Schurz, Mrs. Carl 321 

Scribes, Egyptian 41, 42 

Hebrew 49, 50 

Seguin, Edouard 336 

Semler 249 

Seneca 81 

Sheffield Scientific School 329 

Smith College 337 

Socrates 73-77 

method of teaching 74, 75 

purpose of 75, 76 

relation of, to Philosophy 76 

Solon 63, 66, 38 

Sophie, Rousseau's 261, 262 

Sophists 72, 73 

Sparta 57-62 

Spencer, Herbert 350 

Spener, Philip 235 

Stanford, Leland, University 331 

State organization of schools 27, 36, 58, 59, 68, 69, 167, 

272, 273, 280, 281, 304, 305-307, 309, 310, 345, 346 



INDEX 383 

PAGE 

State superintendents 309, 310, 345, 346 

Stoics, the 80, 81 

Stories, Fenelon's use of 223, 224 

Stow, David 319 

Stoy 300 

Sturm, John 175, 179, 182 

Sunday-schools 270, 271 

Supervision of schools 343-348 

Synagogue, Hebrew ^ 50 

T 

Talks on Pedagogy 318 

Talmud 51 

Teachers, apprentice 319 

Brahman 31 

Chinese 22 

Hebrew 50 

Jesuit 192 

Persian 36, 37 

professional training of 192, 234, 240, 249-251, 319-321 

salaried, at Rome 89 

Technical schools of La Salle 232, 234 

present 331, 332 

Text-books, Chinese 22 

Hindu 31, 32 

lack of, in monastic schools 116 

Melanchthon's 173 

of Comenius 214, 215 

Thales 70 

Theology, Christian, first seminary of 108 

in Jesuit schools 188 

in University of Paris 141 

scholastic 127, 128 

Theresa, Maria 250, 269 

Thoughts concerning Education 218-220 

Town and gown riots 143, 144 

Township organization of schools 347 

Trigonometry, Saracen 131 

Trivium 90, 115, 120, 179 

Troy Female Seminary 337 



384 INDEX 



U PAGE 

United States, early schools in 226, 227, 272 

female education in 337 

first public teacher in 226 

national school legislation in 272, 273, 308, 309, 345 

University, Christian, in Constantinople 126 

Edinburgh 181 

extension 339, 340 

Leyden 181 

mediaeval 138-149 

new humanism in 271 

of Alexandria 90, 91 

of Bologna 140 

of France 281, 326, 327 

of New York 346 

of Paris 128, 141, 142 

of Rome 89 

of Salerno 139, 140 

present American 329-331, 332, 338 

European 325-327 

relation of, to Reformation 162, 166 

to Revival of Learning 154 

study of pedagogy in 250, 251, 319, 321 

Upsala 181 

use of native tongue in 271 

V 

Vassar College 337 

Vatican Library 154 

Vergil 87, 115 

Vespasian 89 

Vincent, Rev. Dr. J. H 340 

Vives 208 

W 

Washington, Booker 334 

Washington's bequest for national university 273 

Wellesley College 337 

Wessel, John 156 



INDEX . 385 

PAGE 

West Point 332 

Wickersham, J. P 351 

Wolfe, F. A 251 

Wolke 266, 268 

Women, Athenian 63 

Fenelon's theory of education of 221, 222 

Froebel's influence on 296 

Hebrew 47 

in China 24 

Luther's views on 167, 168 

Madame de Maintenon's efforts for 242 

mediaeval education of IIG 

modern status of 279, 336 

present higher education of 337-339 

Koman 84, 85 

Rousseau's theory of 261, 262 

social status of, in India 28 

Spartan 47 

Y 

Yale University 272 

Youth, The Christian Education of 164 

Z 

Zeno 80 

Ziller 300 

Zoroaster 35 

Zwingli 164-165 



THE END 



25 



